As the 20th Century draws to a close it is interesting to look back at the events that have helped shape it. This section summarises more than 280 important events. You can search for an event by name or view all the events chronologically. You can also use the Timelines section to view these major events on a timeline.
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"Boer War (1900)",2,0,0,0
The Boer War was fought between the \JBoers\j and the British in South Africa from October, 1899 to 1902 for the control of southern Africa. It followed an earlier 1880-81 conflict in which the \JBoers\j had defeated the British-known as the First Boer War. It was essentially a colonial war in which the British attempted to gain control of South Africa by incorporating the \JBoers\j into a South African confederation. The \JBoers\j, who were descendants of the Dutch settlers who arrived in the seventeenth century, wanted to remain independent, so moved inland on their Great Trek.
The British had also settled parts of South Africa most notably through the efforts of Cecil Rhodes (and his British South African Company) who began his northward expansion by proclaiming a protectorate over Bechuanaland in 1884 before advancing into Rhodesia, initially named after him (later called Zimbabwe). The British then expanded their territorial claims securing Nyasaland as a protectorate in 1889, upsetting the \JBoers\j who claimed rights to southern Africa believing they were the first Europeans to settle there.
Britain also wanted to control South Africa because it was rich in resources, and by controlling Cape Town Britain could control sea traffic sailing from the South Atlantic to the Indian Ocean. Cape Town was also an essential port of call for ships sailing from Europe to the Far East because it was the last place to buy supplies and recruit crew members.
The Boer War started when the Boer state of \JTransvaal\j demanded that on October 11, 1899 Britain withdraw troops from the \JTransvaal\j frontier, as these troops were "menacing the independence of the \JTransvaal\j Republic" and if Britain did not withdraw, this constituted "a declaration of war" according to \JTransvaal\j Secretary of State, Mr Reitz. The British Government ignored the demand and described it as "grotesquely arrogant and defiant" regretting that \JTransvaal\j had "taken so serious a step."
In the first year of the war the \JBoers\j won the initial series of battles at Ladysmith, Kimberley, Mafeking, Stormberg, Modder River, Magersfontein, Colenso, and Moderspruit.
Despite early Boer victories, the tide of the Boer War turned when the British won the Battle of Paardeberg and captured \JPretoria\j under Lord Roberts, before finally wiping out Boer commandos fighting a guerilla war against isolated British settlements and communication lines.
By 1902 the British won the war through sheer weight of numbers, taking control over former Boer states and protecting their interests. In 1910 these states then joined Cape Colony and Natal to form the Union of South Africa which, in turn, supported Britain during the 1914 First World War.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Boxer Uprising in China (1900)",3,0,0,0
From 1898 to 1900, Chinese rebels opposed western interference in their internal affairs, and religion. The uprising was called the Boxer Rebellion because rebels belonged to the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists, which believed boxing was the most effective form of defense, and that their magical powers would protect them from foreign weapons.\p\pThe rebels attacked Christian missionaries, churches and converts, killing 200 foreigners. They besieged foreign legations in Tianjin and Peking for up to 55 days. A Chinese army also joined the rebels following the dowager empress Cixi, who also declared war on foreigners. \p\pThe foreign powers teamed up to suppress the rebellion, calling in troop reinforcements, including Americans, to put down the rebellion. Foreign powers then executed the rebels and introduced the Boxer Protocol (1901) which extended foreign rights in China.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Australian Nation Established (1901)",4,0,0,0
The Commonwealth of \JAustralia\j was formally proclaimed on January 1, 1901 at a ceremony in Sydney's Centennial Park. This unified the former colonies of \JAustralia\j under one flag and one federal constitution based on an Anglo/American model.
Although first proposed in the 1850s when these separate colonies achieved self-government from the British, the federation did not attract support until 1889 when New South Wales premier Henry Parkes delivered a speech in Tenterfield, calling for a federation. A series of conventions were then held around \JAustralia\j between 1890 and 1899 where people debated the idea before adopting a federal structure through a referendum. The British Parliament and Queen Victoria then approved the constitution in 1900, creating the new nation.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Death of Queen Victoria (1901)",5,0,0,0
The death of Queen Victoria on January 22, 1901 on the Isle of Wight brought an end to an era for Britain and her colonies which had been remarkably stable and well-ordered. During her record-breaking 64-year reign, she had presided over the creation of an ever-expanding empire which reached its zenith under her rule, but after her passing began to decline.\p\pApart from reigning over Great Britain and Ireland, Queen Victoria had also been Empress of India and Queen of the Australian colonies, where she had also imprinted her personality. Her death was much lamented. She married Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in 1840 and had nine children with her eldest son Edward VII succeeding her to the throne.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"First Radio Signal Across the Atlantic (1901)",6,0,0,0
On December 12, 1901, Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi (who had developed the world's first radio signals), supervised the sending of the first international transmission of these signals from Poldhu, Cornwall, England to Newfoundland, North America.\p\pIt was a scientific breakthrough, as it proved such signals could travel great distances and follow the curvature of the earth. From this moment on, the possibilities for human communication over vast distances were great indeed. Sixty-eight years later, people on Earth would be communicating with the first man to travel to the Moon.
After years of dreaming and abortive inventions, the human race finally learnt to fly on December 17, 1903 when the American Wright brothers took to the air at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, USA. Orville Wright (1871-1948) recorded the flight from the ground, while his brother Will Wright (1867-1912) flew their plane further than either of the brothers had ever flown in test flights before, setting a new record for powered flight.
Orville Wright reported a distance over the ground of 852 feet which they flew in 59 seconds. On a series of four flights the plane averaged 31 miles. Their pioneering flights in powered heavier-than-air machines inspired other inventors and aviators who helped create the airline industry.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Henry Ford Founds Ford Motor Company (1903)",8,0,0,0
In 1903 American engineer Henry Ford (1863-1947) founded the Ford Motor Company, pioneering the modern assembly-line mass production techniques for what became his famous Model T Ford (1908-9) producing 15 million up to 1928.\p\pA competent manufacturer, Ford had designed and produced his first petrol-driven motor car in 1893, before creating his first company in \JDetroit\j in 1899, designing earlier model cars.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Russo-Japanese War (1904-5)",9,0,0,0
In 1904 Tsarist \JRussia\j and \JJapan\j went to war, claiming similar territory in Manchuria and northern China. Although transporting troops by sea, the tightly-knit Japanese army successfully invaded northern China, defeating poorly led and badly organized and equipped Russian soldiers. Japanese ships bombarded Port Arthur, blockaded Russian troops at Vladivostock and then landed in Korea, fighting their way overland defeating the Russians at Yalu River, Liaoyang and then Mukden.
When the Russian fleet finally arrived from European waters, the Japanese destroyed the flotilla off the Tsushima Islands. The war was the start of the end for \JRussia\j. \JJapan\j was modernizing rapidly and her war machine was a rising power in the region. \JRussia\j's political leadership was increasingly incompetent, as the old Tsarist Empire was beginning to disintegrate, and was further weakened by revolution in 1905.\p\pThe Japanese confirmed their victories in the 1905 Treaty of Portsmouth mediated by US President Roosevelt.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"St. Petersburg Massacre (1905)",10,0,0,0
The Russian troops massacre of hundreds of protesting civilians in St. Petersburg in 1905 turned out to be the first stage of the revolution which succeeded in overturning the Tsarist government in 1917. The merciless slaughter of these well-meaning protesters confirmed the inflexibility of the regime and hardened the resolve of the reformers. A Russian Orthodox priest Georgy Gapon led a procession of 1,500 peaceful protesters to meet Tsar Nicholas II in St. Petersburg to request political reforms. They sang the Tsar's hymn "God Save the People," carried icons, pictures of the Tsar, and petitions calling for reforms.
Although Gapon advised authorities of the plan, troops attacked the marchers as they approached the Winter Palace, killing 100 protesters and wounding many others. Although the massacre was on January 9 according to the Russian Julian calendar, it was January 22 according to the calendar used in the West.
Even though the Tsar introduced minor reforms, radical resistance built up until 1917 when the Bolshevik leader Lenin led a successful revolution against the Tsarist government, installing a communist government.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"San Francisco Earthquake (1906)",11,0,0,0
San Francisco was struck by an \Jearthquake\j on April 17, 1906 which killed 700 people, destroyed 28,000 buildings, and left 250,000 homeless-the city's worst \Jearthquake\j on record. The \Jearthquake\j started a large number of fires. The streets were humped into ridges and depressions and piled with debris from fallen walls. Rescue workers were hampered by widespread looting. As a result of the damage done to the city, new building codes were introduced to minimize destruction from future earthquakes.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"BlΘriot Flies the English Channel (1909)",12,0,0,0
French aviator BlΘriot's flight across the English Channel on July 25, 1909 demonstrated conclusively the international potential of airplanes. Born in Cambrai, \JFrance\j, he flew across the Channel in 40 minutes in a 24 horse-powered monoplane, winning a ú1,000 prize from the \ILondon Daily Mail\i which had been offered to the first person to fly across the Channel. BlΘriot's flight came only 6 years after the American Wright brothers had demonstrated that powered heavier-than-air machines could fly.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Peary Reaches North Pole (1909)",13,0,0,0
American polar explorer, Admiral Robert Peary, won the race to reach the North Pole in 1909 when he led the first successful expedition to the most northerly point in the world.
He had already made eight \JArctic\j voyages to the \JGreenland\j coast, and crossed the continent from West to East by traveling over the ice. Although Peary's claim was disputed by rival explorer Frederick Cook, who claimed he reached the Pole in 1808, Cook's claim was never substantiated.
\BAmundsen Reaches South Pole (1911)\b
Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen (1872-1928) won the race to reach the South Pole when he led his party there on December 14, 1911. The veteran Amundsen, who had visited the Pole with the 1897 Belgian expedition and sailed in search of the North West passage in 1903, created controversy by lightening his load when he used sled dogs for food on the return trip back from the Pole.
Rival British explorer Captain Robert Falcon Scott and his party also reached the South Pole one month later but they died on the return journey.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Dr Sun Yat-sen's Revolution in China (1911)",14,0,0,0
A band of radical reformers put an end to centuries of rule on October 26, 1911 when they rebelled against the Chinese Emperor and established a Chinese Republic.
Dr Sun Yat-sen also known as Sun Yixian (1866-1925), assumed leadership of the revolutionaries who initially rebelled in Wuhan and soon deposed the Manchu Dynasty-the last in a long line of Chinese dynasties stretching over hundreds of years. The Manchu Dynasty had degenerated into an incompetent and corrupt government no longer able to manage China's internal or external affairs. Dr Sun Yat-sen believed, along with his followers, it was wrong for the Emperor and his supporters to live in luxury while the bulk of the population starved. He also aimed to rid China of the foreign powers exploiting the Chinese economy.
Dr Sun Yat-sen established the Guomindang Party which fought for his Three People's Principles of \Jnationalism\j, democracy, and economic reform. Although this party abolished dynastic rule, it failed to implement reforms, and communist leader Mao Zedong built up a peasant-based communist party which eventually defeated the Guomindang and established the People's Republic of China in 1949.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Sinking of the Titanic (1912)",15,0,0,0
The sinking of the \ITitanic\i with 2,224 people on board was history's worst peacetime maritime disaster. A total of 1,513 lives were lost when this White Star liner struck an \Jiceberg\j on her maiden voyage in the North Atlantic.
The impact of the accident was compounded because the authorities had claimed that the 46,329 gross tonnes ship was unsinkable, and although 700 passengers survived by climbing into lifeboats, there were not enough lifeboats for all those on board.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Assassination of Ferdinand (1914)",16,0,0,0
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in the Bosnian town of \JSarajevo\j on June 28, 1914 precipitated the outbreak of the First World War. The Archduke and his pregnant wife Sofia were assassinated by a young Serbian nationalist, Gavrilo Princip, who wanted more autonomy for Serbs living in the Bosnian region of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
As the Archduke was the heir to the Habsburg throne, the Austro-Hungarian Empire declared war on tiny \JSerbia\j on July 28. When \JRussia\j sprang to the defense of \JSerbia\j, announcing mobilization, \JGermany\j took sides with the Habsburg Empire. \JFrance\j then sided with \JRussia\j mobilizing in support of \JSerbia\j, and battlelines began forming. On August 1 \JGermany\j declared war on \JRussia\j and then on \JFrance\j on August 3. On August 4 Britain declared war on \JGermany\j, who responded by invading \JBelgium\j and then \JFrance\j, starting four years of bitter conflict.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Russian Revolution (1917)",17,0,0,0
In October the Bolshevik Party seized political power in Moscow, giving them control over \JRussia\j and eventually enabling them to install a communist government. The success of these pioneer communists ushered in a new political era for the world that lasted more than 70 years, until the disintegration of the communist movement from 1989.
The Tsar began to lose control during the First World War which seriously dislocated Tsarist \JRussia\j. The people had also rebelled on a number of occasions, culminating in a revolt in February after which political leaders formed a Provisional Government on March 14 and the Tsar abdicated on March 15.
Branding the provisional government "bourgeois," Bolshevik Party leader Vladimir Lenin directed \JBolsheviks\j to take over newly-formed "worker's councils" or "soviets." Lenin demanded an end to \JRussia\j's part in the war, and "Peace, Land and Bread." In September the \JBolsheviks\j took over Petrograd and the Moscow soviets and then executed a "coup d'Θtat," seizing control of the government in Moscow and establishing a forerunner for the world's first communist government in the name of the oppressed people of \JRussia\j.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Russian Civil War (1918)",18,0,0,0
The \JBolsheviks\j' seizure of power was opposed by many sections of Russian society and by many nations around the world. Within months, anti-Bolshevik counter-revolutionary troops had mobilized and begun fighting the \JBolsheviks\j for control of \JRussia\j. Victorious First World War Allies including Britain, \JFrance\j, and \JCzechoslovakia\j opposed the \JBolsheviks\j and committed troops to fight for the "White Army." Lenin's Red Army responded by mobilizing 5.5 million men which they needed, as \JPoland\j also started fighting a war with \JRussia\j during this period. By November 16, 1921, the Russian Government claimed the counter-revolution was over.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"End of First World War (1918)",19,0,0,0
The European Allies (assisted towards the end of the war by the United States of America) won the First World War after four years of bitter fighting. The Allies, led by French marshal Foch, finally defeated the German offensive in August 1918, forcing the German leader Kaiser William II to abdicate, and \JGermany\j to surrender by November 11.
It was a clear victory for the Allies-whose members included the larger nations of Britain, \JFrance\j, and the United States. \JRussia\j, although formerly an Ally, withdrew from the war once the communists had seized power in Moscow. It was a clear defeat for the former Austro-Hungarian Empire and \JGermany\j, who surrendered unconditionally.
The death toll suffered by different nations in the First World War was the worst they had experienced in human history:
Russia-1,700,000 killed and 2,500,000 wounded.
Germany-1,686,000 killed and 4,211,000 wounded.
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"Treaty of Versailles Introduction (1919)",20,0,0,0
The pre-war European map was dramatically altered by the First World War. The Allies created the League of Nations which attempted to use their victory after the war "to make the world safe for democracy." \p\pThey drew up a peace treaty in Versailles which attempted to create a set of international conditions that would guarantee peace into the future. These were proposed by American President Woodrow Wilson and called the "Fourteen Points."\p\pFrench leader Georges Clemenceau also insisted \JGermany\j be punished for her "war guilt," and imposed conditions that guaranteed French security from future German attacks.\p\pThese conditions included confiscating one-eighth of \JGermany\j's European land (including 7 million inhabitants), all her colonies, her foreign investments, and most of her military forces and merchant marine.\p\pò \JFrance\j was given Alsace-Lorraine; \pò \JBelgium\j got Eupen and Malmedy;\pò Denmark got northern Schleswig-Holstein;\pò \JPoland\j got West \JPrussia\j, \JDanzig\j, and Silesia;\pò \JLithuania\j got Memel;\pò \JFrance\j got economic use of the Saar region for 15 years;\pò The Rhine was demilitarized;\pò \JGermany\j renounced the Brest-Litovsk Treaty with Russia;\pò \JGermany\j agreed to limit her armed forces;\pò \JGermany\j agreed to pay \Jreparations\j which in 1921 totaled \pUS$32,000 million; and\pò All German colonies were confiscated and given to the victors as mandates.\p\pAlthough the Germans complained, they signed the Treaty on June 28, 1919. As it turned out, the conditions were so harsh, the Treaty inspired the Germans to get revenge and, in time, this led to the start of the Second World War.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"League of Nations Formed (1919)",21,0,0,0
The world's first truly international political body was formed in 1919 when the 1919 Paris Peace Conference wrote a constitution for a new body to supervise peace-the League of Nations-which was enshrined in all the peace treaties.
Based in Geneva, the League was managed by a Council with an annual Assembly for the representation of members who within three years included Britain, \JFrance\j, \JItaly\j, and \JJapan\j, with \JGermany\j and \JRussia\j joining later. By the early 1930s the League represented the major powers, apart from USA, which maintained a post-war isolationist policy.
The League aimed to prevent war by creating conditions that would make conflict unnecessary; by settling any disputes quickly and by stopping nations from arming. Although the League was unable to prevent \JGermany\j, \JItaly\j and \JJapan\j from aggression and deserting the League, and unable to stop the Second World War, it set an important precedent for the United Nations which was formed in 1945.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"First Transatlantic Flight (1919)",22,0,0,0
The first Transatlantic flight was made on June 14 by John Alcock (1892-1919) of Manchester, and Arthur Brown (1886-1948) of Glasgow in a Vickers-Vimy machine-only ten years after the first flight over the English Channel.
Alcock and Brown took 16 hours and 27 minutes to fly from Newfoundland to Ireland. Although the flight was completed successfully, when they landed the plane's nose ploughed into the ground. Neither pilot was hurt. Alcock was, however, killed soon after from injuries received in an accident during a subsequent flight. Brown, who was an engineer, was appointed manager of an \Jengineering\j company. Both men were knighted for their achievements.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"First Female Member of Parliament (1919)",23,0,0,0
British politician Viscountess Nancy Witcher Astor (1879-1964) became the first women to represent an electorate in the British parliament. She succeeded her husband as the Member for Plymouth, England, taking a seat in the House of Commons.
Born in Danville, Virginia, USA, as Nancy Langhorne, she moved to Britain where she succeeded her husband (who became a newspaper proprietor) in 1919. This was nine years before British women obtained the vote and at a time when the female \Jsuffragette\j movement was fighting for the right to vote. Lady Astor, as she was known, became a champion of women's rights and the temperance movement.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Irish Civil War (1919)",24,0,0,0
On January 21 the anti-British Irish rebels issued a challenge to the British, who had governed much of Ireland for some years, by shooting dead 2 policemen and declaring the creation of an Irish Republic with its own parliament made up of 37 Sinn Fein MPs (the political arm of the Catholic Irish Nationalists).
The Irish Republican Army then attacked the British in increasing numbers, forcing the British to reinforce their troops with "Black and Tans" (ex-servicemen from the First World War) and Royal Irish Constabulary. At least 622 people were killed in the fighting between 1919 and 1921.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Prohibition Becomes Law in USA (1920)",25,0,0,0
On January 16 the American Government passed an act of parliament prohibiting the manufacture and distribution of alcohol. The legislation, known as the Volstead Act, ordered manufacturers and distributors to cease production and destroy any remaining alcohol. Federal Agents toured the nation supervising and enforcing the Prohibition Law.
The law was passed in response to mounting public opinion led by the temperance movement which believed the evils of alcohol outweighed the benefits. Illegal alcohol was soon available however, and the nation entered a rebellious post-war celebration era of dancing, singing and party-going, labeled the "Roaring Twenties."
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Civil War Continues in Ireland (1920)",26,0,0,0
On June 24 British police quelled violent anti-British riots in Ireland's \JLondonderry\j in an attempt to stop the continuing Irish campaign aimed at expelling the British from Ireland. The Irish opposed to British political control in Ireland had begun supporting the Irish Republican Army in greater numbers-through Sinn Fein (the political arm of the Catholic Irish Nationalists); the Irish Republican Brotherhood (later IRA) and Irish Volunteers.
On July 21 there were Sinn Fein and Ulster Unionist riots in \JBelfast\j. Rioting continued to build up until Ireland was gripped by a terrorist war until the end of 1920, when the British Government agreed to divide Ireland, separating Ulster in the north from the rest of the island.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Great British Coal Strike (1921)",27,0,0,0
On March 31 British coal miners went on a national strike in an attempt to persuade the government to maintain its control of the mines rather than hand them over to private companies who they claimed exploited them. The government's wartime control had ensured safer working conditions, and regular hours, and wages.
The strike, which became a lock out, lasted until July 1, when the government promised to subsidize the coal industry. Eventually however, the miners were forced to negotiate with the owners, who forced them to accept lower wages and longer hours. This, in turn, led to the Great Strike of 1926.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Russian Sailors Revolt (1921)",28,0,0,0
On February 28 Russian sailors on the naval vessel \IKronstadt\i rebelled against the new Bolshevik government that had taken over \JRussia\j under Lenin in 1917. The sailors claimed the new communist government was not delivering the democracy and popular participation the \JBolsheviks\j promised.
Although Lenin sent the Red Army to crush the sailors, the sailors revolt confirmed the strength of the support for the counter-revolution. This counter-revolutionary resistance was also widespread and it took some years for the communists to suppress.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Mussolini's Rise to Power (1922)",29,0,0,0
On October 30 the fascist leader Benito Mussolini led his Blackshirts into \JRome\j where they seized power. On October 31 he became Prime Minister. Nicknamed "II Duce," his fascist party won the elections easily, establishing the first National Fascist Government.
Mussolini then went on to prepare \JItaly\j for war, teaming up in the 1930s with Adolf Hitler, leader of fascist \JGermany\j, forming the Axis force which was defeated by the Allies in 1945. Mussolini was executed by an Italian mob on April 28 and hung upside down in a town square.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"New Turkish Republic (1922)",30,0,0,0
On November 1 Turkish leader Mustafa Kemal Atatⁿrk (1881-1938) announced a new Turkish republic after a long and bitter struggle by the Turks for their independence and sovereignty. After being defeated in the First World War, Turkey was then invaded by the Greeks who looked like dominating the war-ravaged country, until a new leader Mustafa Kemal Atatⁿrk emerged to lead his troops against the Greeks.
Although the Allies had forbidden the Greeks to occupy the Turkish city of Constantinople, on July 29, 1922 they did little to stop the Greeks who were only rebuffed when Kemal's revamped troops drove them from Constantinople before capturing \JSmyrna\j. After these victories, Kemal was elected president on August 13, 1923.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Tokyo Earthquake (1923)",31,0,0,0
On September 1 a major \Jearthquake\j struck the Kanto region, near \JTokyo\j, \JJapan\j. More than 143,000 people were killed in the \Jearthquake\j which struck shortly before noon, catching everybody unaware. The \Jearthquake\j, which measured 8.3 on the Richter scale, also destroyed hundreds of thousands of homes and displaced 2 million people.
The disaster was compounded by \Jcholera\j outbreaks and \Jmalaria\j caused by widespread flooding and a breakdown in services. The government declared martial law, and refugees fled the \JTokyo\j region for the countryside, searching for food, water, and shelter.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Hitler's Munich Putsch (1923)",32,0,0,0
On November 8 National Socialist Party leader Adolf Hitler attempted to organize a rebellion designed to take over the government. The coup, known as the Munich Putsch, failed to mobilize sufficient support and he was arrested on November 11 in a village outside Munich and sent to prison.
Although he had the backing of field marshal von Ludendorff, his other "supporters," including local military and political leaders, deserted him as soon as they could escape the custody of Hitler's paramilitary \Jbrownshirts\j who had forced them to support Hitler in the first place.
Hitler had already attracted attention when he assumed leadership of the National Socialist (German Workers) Party and began criticizing the Weimar Republic. Although he failed on this occasion, he strengthened his position during nine months in prison by writing his political treatise \IMein Kampf\i and soon succeeded in obtaining the power he needed to lead \JGermany\j back to war.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Lenin Dies (1924)",33,0,0,0
On January 21 the \JBolsheviks\j' revolutionary leader Vladimir Lenin died, leaving the new Russian communist nation without an obvious successor. Lenin (1870-1924), who was 53 years old when he died, suffered from a series of strokes. Lenin, more than any other leader, created the Russian Revolution. To begin with he studied law at St. Petersburg and Kazan universities where he had organized revolutionary activities against the Tsar. He was imprisoned in \JSiberia\j for his revolutionary beliefs.
After his release he reorganized the Bolshevik Party in 1903 by persuading the \JBolsheviks\j to split off from the Mensheviks and then advised the party until it seized power in 1917. He then led the party during its revolutionary seizure of power and helped establish the first Soviet government. As government leader he also introduced the first post-revolutionary program-New Economic Policy. Considered a real hero whose life was cut short, his body was embalmed and displayed in Red Square.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"The General Strike (1926)",34,0,0,0
The General Strike of Britain (May 4-12) was one of the biggest disputes ever organized by the working class in modern Britain to improve their conditions.
The strike, which started out on May 1 as a miners' strike initially in the coal industry, was organized from May 4 by the British Trade Union Congress (TUC) after the operators of the coal mines decided to reduce wages to save costs. The miners refused to accept the cuts but the operators locked them out of the mines. Consequently, the \JTUC\j called a general strike to assist miners in restoring their wages.
The General Strike brought the economic life of the country to a halt as never before, because workers in many industries demonstrated their support for the miners. The conservative forces were very worried because of the success of the Russian working classes who had actually organized a revolution only nine years earlier, overthrowing the entire conservative order.
But the British Government responded quickly, however, by deploying troops to help run emergency transport and supply services assisted by volunteers and students. In time this undermined the general strike and the \JTUC\j was forced to back down.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Wall Street Crash (1929)",35,0,0,0
In October, 1929 the prices of the stocks and shares on the New York Stock Market in Wall Street dropped dramatically, precipitating the Great Depression. By October 24-Black Thursday-13 million shares changed hands and by October 29, 16 million shares changed hands.
The crash was caused by a rush of people suddenly deciding speculative share prices, which had been building up since 1927 based on investor confidence, no longer reflected the real worth of the stocks. Share speculation was profitable as long as the general mood of confidence continued to inspire buyers to buy rather than sell. Once sales started, other owners panicked and followed suit. People then lost confidence in the American economy overnight, refusing to invest in shares and withdrawing savings from banks. Many companies then went bankrupt, creating widespread unemployment and depression.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"The Great Depression (1929)",36,0,0,0
The Great Depression affected the world economy from October 1929 to 1934, after the American Wall Street Stock Market crash which caused a drop in worldwide production and prices, causing massive unemployment in free market economies throughout the western world.
The crash was caused by a rush of people suddenly deciding share prices, which had been building up for so many years just on investor confidence, no longer reflected the real worth of the stocks.
In the USA many companies went bankrupt and business confidence collapsed, undermining investments and lending. Many businessmen were sacked overnight and others committed suicide, including the president of Union Cigar who felt he was to blame when his company shares dropped from $113.50 to $4 in one day, and so jumped from the window of a New York Hotel. Hundreds of thousands of ordinary consumers also lost all their savings when the banks collapsed along with their jobs, and many survived only through government handouts until the international economy revived in the early 1930s.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Japan Invades Manchuria (1931)",37,0,0,0
In September, 1931 Japanese troops invaded China's Manchuria, claiming they were protecting local residents after a bomb exploded on the Japanese-operated South Manchurian railway near Mukden, which they occupied along with Changchun and Kirin.
The Japanese, who wished to exploit the economic resources of Manchuria, then occupied the rest of the province within five months. \JJapan\j then renamed it Manchukuo and converted it into a puppet state, installing the former Chinese Emperor Puyi as nominal head of state. The Chinese were unable to repel the Japanese invasion, as they had been fighting amongst themselves following Dr Sun Yat-sen's 1911 rebellion which overthrew the last dynasty and attempted to establish a republic.
When the League of Nations verbally condemned the invasion, \JJapan\j withdrew from the League in 1933 and in 1937 joined the Anti-Comintern Pact with fellow fascists \JItaly\j and Nazi \JGermany\j, who fought against the Allies in the Second World War (1939-45). The Allies forced \JJapan\j out of China following their defeat in 1945.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Hitler Appointed Chancellor of Germany (1933)",38,0,0,0
Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler's appointment to Chancellor of \JGermany\j gave him the power base he needed to prepare \JGermany\j for war. His Nazi Party had won 230 of the 609 seats in the 1932 elections but when they lost seats in subsequent elections, Hitler decided to focus on persuading German conservative leader Hindenburg to appoint him Chancellor to stop \JGermany\j from being taken over by communists.
Although the Nazi Party failed to secure sufficient votes in the subsequent March elections to form a government-despite a campaign of violence and intimidation-Hitler coupled their 44 per cent with the 8 per cent gained by conservative Nationalists and formed a Nazi government. He then forced through an enabling act giving the government dictatorial powers. Hitler's one party totalitarian fascist regime then prepared \JGermany\j for war-rearming and withdrawing from the League of Nations and the Disarmament Conference.
Benito Mussolini's fascist Italian troops invaded and brutally subjugated \JAbyssinia\j (Ethiopia) in October, 1935. The Italians claimed they had the right to occupy \JEthiopia\j because this action followed their earlier 1882 invasion and occupation of Eritrea, a northern state adjacent to \JAbyssinia\j. In reality, they were attracted by the resources of \JAbyssinia\j which they needed to prepare for further conquests. \JItaly\j annexed \JEthiopia\j as "Italian East Africa."
As Mussolini had met with \JGermany\j's new fascist leader Adolf Hitler in 1934 forging a fascist agreement, \JGermany\j supported \JItaly\j's invasion of \JEthiopia\j. In October, 1936 the two fascist powers confirmed this agreement in the Rome-Berlin Axis.
The League of Nations declared \JItaly\j an aggressor and imposed sanctions, but only in a half-hearted manner. \JItaly\j responded by withdrawing from the League in 1937.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Spanish Civil War (1936 to 1939)",40,0,0,0
The Spanish Civil War started in July, 1936 when two rival political groups fought for control of \JSpain\j. On the one hand, there was the right-wing Nationalists led by General Franco, composed of conservative forces including fascists supported by Nazi \JGermany\j and fascist \JItaly\j, who opposed the 1931-36 Spanish Republic. On the other hand, there were the idealistic left-wing Republicans composed of socialists and communists supported by Soviet \JRussia\j who were in favor of the Republic.
The Nationalists advanced from the west, capturing north-west, followed by south-west \JSpain\j before occupying southern and then northern \JSpain\j, encircling the Republicans trapped in central \JSpain\j before taking the capital Madrid. Franco's forces won because they were much more cohesive, better organized and enjoyed greater foreign support from the fascists than the Republicans, who had little support from the Russian communists, themselves suffering from economic difficulties.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Abdication of King Edward VIII (1936)",41,0,0,0
Edward VIII (1894-1972) succeeded to the throne of Great Britain in January, 1936 but only ruled until December 1936 when he abdicated to marry a commoner, Mrs Ernest Simpson, who had been twice divorced.
King Edward was forced to abdicate because neither the church nor the state would approve the marriage to American-born Mrs Simpson, who was born Bessie Wallis Warfield. She had first married Lt. E. W. Spencer of the US Navy. Her second marriage was to Ernest Simpson, an Englishman who had also been born in America. After Edward abdicated and married Mrs Simpson in \JFrance\j, the couple lived in the \JBahamas\j where he served as Governor, and then Paris, where he died some years before her. Both were eventually buried at Windsor Castle.
The \Jabdication\j was greeted with relief by some British authorities because King Edward VIII was known to support some of fascist \JGermany\j's ambitions. He was succeeded by his brother George.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Japan Invades China (1937)",42,0,0,0
Using a bogus incident as a pretext, in which they claimed Japanese people were threatened, \JJapan\j invaded China in July 1937, having already invaded and occupied Manchuria in 1931. The Japanese remained in occupation until expelled by a combination of the Chinese Nationalists (Guomindang), Communists, and Soviet forces, following the end of the Second World War.
Japan had been strengthening her position in China since her 1931 invasion of Manchuria, putting increasing pressure on northern China. The Japanese sent warships to threaten Shanghai in 1932 after the Chinese boycotted Japanese goods until the West condemned the act, persuading them to withdraw their ships.
In 1932 \JJapan\j increased her military influence over the north by capturing Shanhaikuan and then she annexed Jehol. In 1935 the Japanese took over Chahar and Suiyuan and then set up a puppet regime in East Hopei. By 1936 \JJapan\j controlled the Chinese economy north of the Yellow River. In 1937, the same year \JJapan\j invaded China, she signed an Anti-Comintern Pact with fascist \JGermany\j and \JItaly\j and prepared for war.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Munich Crisis (1938)",43,0,0,0
In 1938 Britain believed the last chance for world peace was to halt future German invasions of Europe by signing a treaty which allowed \JGermany\j to expand into one final area. After \JGermany\j had occupied or annexed areas adjacent to her borders, including the Saar, Rhineland and \JAustria\j, the Allies (Britain and France) met the Axis powers (Germany and Italy) in Munich and agreed to give western \JCzechoslovakia\j (Sudetenland) to \JGermany\j, on the condition that \JGermany\j would not invade any more countries.
On his arrival back in London, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain (1869-1940) hailed the Munich Agreement as achieving "peace for our time." Within months, in March, 1939, \JGermany\j seized the rest of \JCzechoslovakia\j, violating the Agreement and making it clear Hitler was bent on war. The disillusioned Chamberlain resigned soon after as Britain prepared for an inevitable war.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Outbreak of Second World War (1939)",44,0,0,0
The Second World War started after \JGermany\j invaded \JPoland\j on September 1, 1939. Britain and \JFrance\j, who had agreed to protect \JPoland\j (after \JGermany\j had occupied, annexed or invaded a series of smaller countries from the late 1930s such as Czechoslovakia), declared war on \JGermany\j on September 3, 1939.
There were two main sides.
\BThe Axis\b included fascist \JGermany\j who had signed an agreement with fascist \JItaly\j (the Rome-Berlin Axis), and then fascist \JJapan\j (the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Triangle). \JGermany\j was also initially supported by Soviet \JRussia\j (with whom they had signed a non-aggression pact in which they agreed to divide up \JPoland\j between them). After \JGermany\j attacked Soviet \JRussia\j in 1942, however, Soviet \JRussia\j changed sides. The Axis was also supported by smaller powers including \JHungary\j, \JFinland\j, and \JBulgaria\j.
\BThe Allies\b initially included Great Britain and the British Commonwealth, \JFrance\j, \JPoland\j, \JBelgium\j, Denmark, the Netherlands, China, and smaller powers. After \JJapan\j attacked the American naval base in the island state of Hawaii in 1941, the USA joined the Allies.
On April 9, 1940, Germany-using the "lightning strike" attacking technique or \Iblitzkrieg\i-invaded \JNorway\j and neutral Denmark. \JGermany\j wanted to secure \JNorway\j's iron ore supplies and use her fjords as shipping ports from which to attack Britain. British and French troops who rushed to defend \JNorway\j were defeated and withdrew by May.
On May 10 \JGermany\j launched an invasion of Holland, \JBelgium\j and \JFrance\j, conquering Holland within four days and \JFrance\j by June 14, despite strong resistance by the Allied forces who were driven west to the port of \JDunkirk\j on the English Channel.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Churchill Elected Prime Minister of Britain (1940)",45,0,0,0
Britain gained a champion fighter to lead them through the war when conservative member of parliament, Winston Churchill, became Prime Minister in 1940 and formed a coalition government after the resignation of the would-be peacemaker Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain. Churchill, a real match for Hitler, was also Minister for Defense throughout the Second World War and an inspired leader who led Britain's fight against Nazi \JGermany\j with great courage and determination. He played a dominant role in winning the war for Britain and the Allies.
Churchill was also a great military strategist as he trained at Sandhurst, fought with the Nile Expeditionary Force in 1898, covered the Boer War as a correspondent, served as First Lord of the Admiralty in 1911, helped lead and then learnt valuable lessons from the disastrous 1915 Dardanelles campaign, was Minister for Munitions in 1917, and Secretary of State for War and Air (1919-21).
Although defeated at the first election held after his party helped win the war, Churchill led the Conservatives back to power in 1951, becoming Prime Minister again.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Dunkirk Evacuation (1940)",46,0,0,0
On May 27 British military and civilian personnel evacuated 340,000 troops from the French port of \JDunkirk\j across the Channel to England after the troops had fled from the Germans invading \JFrance\j. The evacuation called "Operation Dynamo" saved 200,000 British Expeditionary Forces and 140,000 French troops. The rescuers sailed over from England in a flotilla of boats, ranging from naval vessels to small power boats, to transport the defeated troops more than 22 miles across water to safety.
Operation Dynamo was the biggest evacuation in history. Through their brave actions, the British civilians enabled the Allied troops to regroup until it was time to return to Europe to defeat the Germans.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Battle of Britain (1940)",47,0,0,0
From July to August 1940, Nazi \JGermany\j launched an aerial onslaught against Britain as a prelude to a planned invasion-the Battle of Britain. The main German bombing raids over Britain were carried out from July to October, 1940 (the period known as the Battle of Britain), with the worst period being September (known as "the Blitz") when the Germans tried to bomb London into submission. The bombing raids continued until 1942, killing 50,000 British people.
The battle was a great victory for the British as the Germans had 2,500 \Jaircraft\j (of all descriptions) against 820 British fighter planes. The British fighter planes (Spitfires and Hurricanes) fought well in the air, however, especially against 869 German ME 109 fighter planes. The British also enjoyed a home ground advantage and radar detection, while the Germans, even though they were more experienced, were restricted by limited fuel.
The Royal Air Force defended Britain around the clock, month after month, and after long and hard-fought battles, defeated the German \JLuftwaffe\j planes, preventing a German invasion of Britain (known as Sealion) which Hitler soon canceled. In the battle, the RAF shot down 325 \JLuftwaffe\j planes and lost 265 planes.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Germany Invades Soviet Russia (1941)",48,0,0,0
Although Hitler had signed a non-aggression pact with Stalin, his Nazi German troops invaded Soviet \JRussia\j on June 22, 1941. Hitler wanted to destroy \Jcommunism\j, capture the wheat fields of the \JUkraine\j and oil supplies in the Caucasus, to supply food to his troops and fuel for their vehicles. Despite these ambitions, however, Hitler overreached himself and his defeat by Soviet \JRussia\j was the first major Second World War turning point in the Allies favor.
Codenamed "Operation Barbarossa," Hitler sent three sets of troops to Soviet \JRussia\j in northerly, central, and southerly directions, hoping to cut through the border and sneak around the back of Russian troops manning their frontiers, encircling, and then taking them prisoners. Although Hitler diverted 75 per cent of his troops and war materials including 3,000,000 men, 3,500 tanks and 5,000 \Jaircraft\j, the Soviet soldiers enjoyed a home ground advantage with more food, winter clothing, and fuel, enabling them to survive the same freezing winter that defeated the Germans the way it had defeated Napoleon more then 100 years earlier.
Although the tough fighting Soviet soldiers drove the Germans back out of \JRussia\j, by August, 1944 they had lost 20 million people in the war-the largest death toll of any nation in any war throughout history.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Japan Attacks Pearl Harbor (1941)",49,0,0,0
On December 7, 1941 Japanese bombers without warning attacked the American naval base Pearl Harbor, in Hawaii, without declaring war against America.
Operating from an \Jaircraft\j carrier fleet in the Pacific, 200 Japanese planes attacked the naval base sinking 5 battleships, disabling 3 battleships, destroying 200 \Jaircraft\j, and killing 2,350 men. \JJapan\j lost 29 of her own planes in the attack.
Although the attack crippled America for some months until she rebuilt her fleet, this single act more than any other was \JJapan\j's undoing in the Second World War, as it provoked America to enter the war. In time America defeated \JJapan\j, ultimately dropping atom bombs on \JHiroshima\j and \JNagasaki\j.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Battle of Midway Islands (1942)",50,0,0,0
The victory of America over \JJapan\j in the battle for Midway Islands in June, 1942 gave the Allies control over the Pacific, and was a decisive turning point for \JJapan\j who was on the defensive from then on. It was as significant a battle in the Pacific as Stalingrad had been in the fight against German tyranny in the European theater of war.
After bombing Pearl Harbor in 1941, \JJapan\j had by June, 1942 gained control of the Pacific occupying Malaya, \JSingapore\j, \JBurma\j, Hong Kong, the \JPhilippines\j, and many of the islands.
The Japanese sent 5 \Jaircraft\j carriers with nearly 400 planes and 5,000 troops-far outnumbering the American forces. After a fierce battle, the Americans sank 4 Japanese \Jaircraft\j carriers and 296 planes, losing only 1 carrier and 132 \Jaircraft\j. America then moved west towards \JJapan\j, driving the Japanese back across the Pacific as they went.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Russians Defeat Germans at Stalingrad (1943)",51,0,0,0
The Russian defeat of the German invasion of Soviet \JRussia\j was a major turning point of the Second World War, after which the Germans were on the defensive until their final defeat at the end of the war. The successful Russian defense of the German attack against Stalingrad was the victory that turned the tide.
Hitler had ordered General von Paulus and his V1 Panzer division to take the city with 250,000 men, but Russian General Zhukov fought back with two pincer attacks from the north and the south of the city, encircling the German troops who they annihilated before the Germans surrendered, taking 91,000 prisoners.
The Russians had already helped the Allied war effort by engaging 75 per cent of the German war machine on the eastern front for three years, preventing Hitler from using these on the western front. Against Soviet \JRussia\j the Axis powers deployed 228 divisions-5,250 tanks and 4,000,000 men, as against only 61 divisions on the western front. This battle on the eastern front gave the Allies time on the western front to prepare for the invasion and liberation of Europe in 1944.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"D-Day Landing (1944)",52,0,0,0
The Allies, who had fled the Germans from \JDunkirk\j in 1940, returned to liberate Europe from Nazi German occupation on June 6, 1944, landing at Normandy to open up the long awaited "western front." Confident the Russians would preoccupy the Germans on the "eastern front," the Allies had started the final offensive against the Germans by landing first at \JItaly\j (who had changed sides) in July, 1943 (Sicily) and September, 1943 (Salerno on the mainland).
The Allies planned to divert additional German troops to the south, so the Germans would be fighting in both the south and the east. Consequently this would minimize the opposition when the Allies landed in the west.
The \JD-Day\j landing at Normandy (codenamed "Overlord"), led by American General Eisenhower with six Allied divisions (three American, two British and one Canadian) totaling 1,000,000 troops, was successful. Allied troops swept across Europe, liberating nations from German occupation and finally invading \JGermany\j, meeting the Russians who were liberating Europe from the east in \JGermany\j itself. The European war against \JGermany\j had been won.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Atom Bombs Dropped on Japan (1945)",53,0,0,0
The first atom bomb was dropped by the USA on August 6 on the Japanese city of \JHiroshima\j to force the Japanese Government to surrender. The bomb killed or wounded 150,000 people and destroyed 75 per cent of all buildings. A second bomb was then dropped on August 9 on \JNagasaki\j, killing or wounding 75,000 people and destroying one-third of the city.
The atomic bomb was developed in USA from 1942 onwards as the "Manhattan Project."
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"End of Second World War (1945)",54,0,0,0
Although the European war ended on May 8 with the defeat of \JGermany\j in Europe (VE Day), the Second World War did not end until August 14 (VJ Day) when \JJapan\j surrendered, bringing the war in the Pacific to a close on September 2 when \JJapan\j signed the capitulation on board USS \IMissouri.\i
\BWar casualties: 1939-45\b
Great Britain-244,723 killed and 277,090 wounded.
British Commonwealth-109,929 killed and 197,908 wounded
USA-230,173 killed and 613,611 wounded.
Germany-3,000,000 killed and 1,000,000 wounded.
USSR-20,000,000 killed and an unknown number wounded.
The military forces of the victorious Allies of USA, Britain, \JFrance\j, and USSR occupied the defeated countries of \JGermany\j and \JAustria\j. The Allies also imposed peace treaties on five other defeated countries: \JItaly\j, \JHungary\j, \JFinland\j, \JRomania\j, and \JBulgaria\j, confiscated territory (from all apart from Bulgaria), and forced these defeated nations to reduce their armed forces and pay heavy indemnities.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Yalta Conference (1945)",55,0,0,0
The Allied leaders met at Yalta on February 4-11 to plan the end of the Second World War and to rebuild the world during the forthcoming peace. At this historic summit meeting, British leader Winston Churchill, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, and US President Franklin Roosevelt discussed the disarmament and partition of \JGermany\j, the creation of the United Nations and new frontiers including the Soviet/Polish border.
The Allies also persuaded the Soviet Union to declare war on \JJapan\j once they had defeated \JGermany\j. It was an historic meeting and an unusual alliance because normally the capitalist democracies like USA and Britain were opposed to the communists, and after the war this traditional suspicion returned and developed into the Cold War.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"United Nations Established (1945)",56,0,0,0
The United Nations (UN) was established on October 24, 1945 by the victorious Allies of the Second World War as a successor to the failed League of Nations, which had attempted in vain to keep the peace between the First and Second World Wars. The United Nations was founded by 51 countries who wanted to maintain world order and foster international co-operation. By 1994 the UN had 184 members.
The charter, which was drafted during the war by UK, USA, and USSR, aimed at achieving a world community of independent sovereign states and thereby preserve the security of the world by taking collective action against war and the causes of war.
There are six main bodies:
1. General Assembly (plenary body which supervises the work of the UN generally).
2. Security Council (responsible for maintaining peace and security under the leadership of five permanent members: China, USSR, USA, UK, and France).
3. Secretariat (responsible for diplomatic management under the Secretary General).
4. The International Court of Justice (responsible for adjudicating and settling disputes between nations).
5. Economic and Social Council (responsible for supervising work of committees, commissions, and agencies).
6. Trusteeship Council (responsible for supervising the transfer from Trust Territories to self-government).
There is also a range of subsidiary agencies such as United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Cold War and Iron Curtain (1946)",57,0,0,0
The Cold War started after the end of the Second World War when the democratic Anglo-American Allies began to fear their former USSR ally. The communist Soviet Union was becoming a threat to western democracy by taking over the eastern European nations it had "liberated," such as \JCzechoslovakia\j, \JPoland\j, \JHungary\j, \JBulgaria\j, \JRomania\j, and East \JGermany\j.
In 1946 British Prime Minister Winston Churchill claimed that the Soviet Union had drawn an "Iron Curtain" across central Europe, isolating the communist-controlled eastern European nations from the free democratic nations in western Europe. Nazi \JGermany\j's Propaganda leader Goebbels had used the term in 1943. It was a popular description of eastern European \Jcommunism\j until the late 1980s when \Jcommunism\j collapsed.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Indian and Pakistani Independence (1947)",58,0,0,0
The British Government granted India independence which was proclaimed on August 15, 1947. India and \JPakistan\j were partitioned to take account of the mutual hostility between the Indian Hindus and Pakistani Muslims. Pandit Nehru was Prime Minister of India, and Liaquat Ali Khan Prime Minister of \JPakistan\j. Although long-awaited, the newly won independence and partitioning sparked religious riots between Hindus and Muslims that has troubled the sub-continent from time to time ever since.
Indian leaders had been agitating for independence for some time. Ghandi and Pandit Nehru had rejected British self-government proposals and demanded British quit India on September 20, 1945.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Berlin Blockade (1948)",59,0,0,0
The Berlin Blockade occurred after the Second World War when \JGermany\j itself was divided into East \JGermany\j (controlled by the communist Soviet Union), and West \JGermany\j (controlled by the capitalist Allies). The main German city of Berlin, which was in the middle of East \JGermany\j, was also divided into East Berlin (controlled by the Soviet Union) and West Berlin (controlled by capitalist Allies).
The Soviet Union imposed a blockade on the western capitalist sectors of Berlin, stopping the capitalist Allies from sending food, fuel, and raw materials into communist-controlled East Berlin by road, railway or canal through East \JGermany\j, which they controlled from capitalist Europe. The blockade cut the 2,500,000 consumers off from capitalist goods.
The Soviet Union believed the capitalist Allies were trying to undermine their communist sector by building up their own capitalist sectors by merging the British, American and then French sectors, allocating large amounts of aid through the American Marshall Plan and reforming their sector's currency.
The capitalist Allies responded by supplying the western section of Berlin by air in an operation called Berlin Airlift.
\BBerlin Airlift (1948)\b
The capitalist nations controlling capitalist West \JGermany\j and capitalist West Berlin flew food supplies into West Berlin over communist East \JGermany\j which was controlled by the Soviet Union. The allied Berlin airlift was carried out to overcome a ban the Soviet Union had placed over the capitalists bringing in food supplies by ground transport through East \JGermany\j, which they controlled.
The allied \Jaircraft\j organized a gigantic airlift of 277,264 flights over 11 months, carrying 4,000-5,000 tons of food each day for the 2,500,000 citizens of West Berlin, until the Soviet Union called off the blockade on May 12, 1949. It was a daring operation in defiance of Soviet wishes, and could have sparked a war if anything had gone wrong in the tense atmosphere of the Cold War which continued to worsen.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Communists Proclaim People's Republic of China (1949)",60,0,0,0
Mao Zedong (Tse-tung) proclaimed the Chinese Communist People's Republic of China in Tiananmen Square with Chou En-lai as Premier and Foreign Minister.
Mao had led the Communist Party of China during the days when the nationalists and communists began fighting within the republic, established by Dr Sun Yat-sen in 1912. Mao had gained his credentials after leading his loyal band of communists on a Long March in 1934-35 to Yanan, establishing a strong-hold in the north-west of China from where the communists spread out, attacking the nationalists and then the Japanese who had invaded China in 1937.
As the communists fought harder against the Japanese occupying forces, and developed superior forces to the nationalists, the people supported them, forcing the nationalists to flee to \JTaiwan\j.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Korean War (1950-53)",61,0,0,0
Following the communist victory in China in 1949, war broke out in Korea on June 25 when North Korean communist forces invaded non-communist South Korea. The United Nations Security Council condemned the invasion as an act of aggression, calling for a cease-fire and ordering the Koreans to withdraw to the 38th parallel. When North Korea refused, the UN called for assistance, and 16 nations, led by USA, offered to help defend South Korea.
Korea had been partitioned along the 38th parallel in 1945, after the United States occupied South Korea driving out the defeated Japanese army. The north was backed by the communists and the south by the non-communists. Following the outbreak of war, US General MacArthur led the non-communist forces, driving the communists back to the Chinese border.
China then entered the war, and with North Korean forces, captured the South Korean capital Seoul, south of the dividing line on June 28, 1951. The UN/American forces fought back, sending the communists back over the 38th parallel, establishing South Korea as a non-communist nation by the armistice of 1953.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Death of Stalin (1953)",62,0,0,0
The hard-line leader of the Soviet Union and General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, Joseph Stalin, died on March 5, 1953. His death ushered in a more humane era of \Jcommunism\j which eventually led to de-Stalinization and finally the collapse of \Jcommunism\j.
Originally named Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili, Stalin was born in 1879, the son of a former serf turned cobbler in Georgia. Educated and expelled by a theological seminary, he joined a social democratic underground revolutionary organization and after some years in Siberian exile joined the \JBolsheviks\j, playing an active role in the 1917 October Revolution which seized power in the name of the communists under Lenin. After becoming People's Commissar for Nationalities and then member of the communist party \JPolitburo\j, he strengthened his grip on power as General Secretary of the Party's Central Committee. Once Lenin died in 1924, Stalin ruled the USSR like a dictator.
His policies of \Jsocialism\j in one country, agricultural collectivization and forced industrialization, claimed millions of people's lives. Stalin also purged the government and associated institutions, killing, imprisoning and executing millions of so-called "enemies of the people." After his death, his successor Khrushchev denounced Stalin and began the slow healing process of de-Stalinization.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Mt Everest Conquered (1953)",63,0,0,0
After many years of failed attempts by mountaineers around the world, New Zealand climber Edmund Hillary and Nepalese Sherpa Tenzing Norgay reached the summit on May 29, becoming the first men to stand on top of the world at 8,848 meters (29,028 feet). The two climbers were members of a party led by British mountaineer John Hunt.
On returning to base camp, Hillary gave the world a classic line when he said, "We knocked the bastard off." He was subsequently knighted and then spent much of the remainder of his life helping provide educational facilities for the Sherpas and people of \JNepal\j who had helped him conquer the world's highest mountain.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Queen Elizabeth II Crowned (1953)",64,0,0,0
Following the death of the British king, King George VI, his eldest child Elizabeth was crowned Queen on June 2, 1953. Crowds packed London to see the royal procession which was carried out with the best of British fanfare.
She had already been proclaimed Queen on February 6, 1952. Born in London as Princess Elizabeth Alexandra Mary, she married in 1947. Her husband became the Duke of Edinburgh and was later given the title Prince Philip. Queen Elizabeth II is head of the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Battle of Dien Bien Phu (1954)",65,0,0,0
The conflict in Vietnam entered a new stage when the Vietnamese communists defeated a French force, for the first time, at the battle of Dien Bien Phu. Having occupied Vietnam since seizing \JSaigon\j in 1859 as a colonial power, \JFrance\j had traditionally suppressed nationalistic uprisings and this defeat indicated not only a loss of control but also resolve.
The battle also confirmed the rising power of the communist anti-French Viet-Minh League, led from 1946 by Ho Chi Minh, who not only expelled the French, but went on to expel the Americans by 1975. The Americans had in 1965 taken the place of the French who fled Vietnam in 1954 as anti-communist opponents.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Warsaw Pact (1955)",66,0,0,0
In response to the democratic nations creating the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the communist nations created a balancing force in 1955-the Warsaw Pact, East European Mutual Assistance Treaty. Members included the USSR, \JPoland\j, East \JGermany\j, \JHungary\j, \JRomania\j, \JCzechoslovakia\j, \JBulgaria\j, and \JAlbania\j.
The treaty set up a central and unified command structure for all the armies of the member states. All members agreed to assist each other should any state be attacked. \JAlbania\j withdrew in 1968, however, and the Pact was dissolved in 1991 after the end of the Cold War.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"De-Stalinization (1956)",67,0,0,0
The unrelenting hard-line of Soviet \Jcommunism\j, practiced under Communist Party Secretary Joseph Stalin from his rise in 1924 to his death in 1953, was terminated in 1956, when the new Secretary Nikita Khrushchev denounced Stalin at the 20th Party Congress in Moscow. Khrushchev also denounced Stalin's \Jcult\j of personality and one-man dictatorial style of control, opening up a new softer style of government that evolved until the eventual collapse of traditional soviet \Jcommunism\j in the late 1980s. Khrushchev's de-Stalinization also caused a split between the Soviet Union and communist China (Sino-Soviet split), whose leader Mao Zedong preferred to follow Stalin's original hard-line and develop his \Jcult\j of personality. Nevertheless, the de-Stalinization policy was a turning point for the communist world.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Suez Crisis (1956)",68,0,0,0
President Nasser of \JEgypt\j caused an international crisis when he nationalized the Suez Canal to raise alternative funds to pay for the construction of \JEgypt\j's \JAswan\j Dam, following the withdrawal of financial aid by the United States of America. The USA withdrew its funding because the Egyptians were drawing too close to the communist bloc through purchasing arms from the Soviet Union. The US, Britain, and \JFrance\j did not want to lose influence over the canal, nor pay exorbitant fees for sending their ships through the vital waterway linking the Red Sea and Mediterranean Sea.
Britain and \JFrance\j teamed up with the traditional Arab world enemy Israel, mounting a combined expeditionary force to support Israel which began the operation by invading the eastern \JSinai\j region of \JEgypt\j adjoining the Israeli border. Once Israel occupied the \JSinai\j, Britain and \JFrance\j occupied the canal zone cities. The US then stepped in, however, applying diplomatic pressure forcing the Anglo/French Allies to withdraw from the canal zone, and Israel to withdraw from the \JSinai\j, ending the crisis.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Hungarian Uprising (1956)",69,0,0,0
In October 1956, Hungarian anti-hardline communist rebels organized the first major revolt against the Soviet Union's control over Eastern Bloc countries opening up a crack in the faτade of the Iron Curtain. The rebels, led by Imre Nagy, were inspired by Soviet leader Khrushchev denouncing Stalin at the 20th Soviet Communist Party Congress.
The Hungarians, who had opposed the total control exercised by the Soviet Union over \JHungary\j's political, economic and social life, ran amok. Rioting students and workers tipped over statues of Stalin and tore posters off the walls, demanding a softer style of government in the future. Nagy also announced \JHungary\j's withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact. Soviet tanks then invaded, crushed the riot, killed many protesters, and executed Nagy. Thousands of Hungarians fled to the West, where some, like Nagy's nephew Istvan Nagy, became highly successful businessmen.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"USSR Launches First Sputnik (1957)",70,0,0,0
On October 4, 1957, Soviet \JRussia\j caught the budding space community by surprise when it launched the world's first satellite-\ISputnik I\i-which carried a dog called Laika. This \JSputnik\j (Russian for "traveling companion") was the world's first artificial satellite. The \JSputnik\j, which weighed 84 kg or 185 lb, was launched from the Tyuratam launch site and was powered by batteries enabling it to transmit signals for three weeks.
After a week providing biomedical data, the dog was put down by a pre-planned injection. The early Russian success spurred the Americans into action and by 1969 they had put the first man on the moon. Eventually the two nations began working together in space.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"EEC Created (1958)",71,0,0,0
The Treaty of \JRome\j established the European Economic Community (EEC) or European Common Market, consisting of western European member nations. The \JEEC\j was formed initially to create an integrated economic unit which would then develop into an integrated political grouping that would minimize the risk of future war.
The \JEEC\j is controlled by a series of supra-national bodies including the European Parliament, European Commission, Council of Ministers, and European Court of Justice. The original six members in 1958 included \JFrance\j, \JBelgium\j, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, \JItaly\j, and West \JGermany\j. They were later joined by Denmark, the United Kingdom and Ireland (1973), \JGreece\j (1981), and \JSpain\j and \JPortugal\j (1986).
The \JEEC\j created common and standardized institutions for industrial production, regulation and marketing, forming one of the largest trading blocs in history. The union was further strengthened by the 1993 Maastricht Treaty, bestowing more powers on the supra-national bodies.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Great Leap Forward (1958)",72,0,0,0
Aware that his communist nation was lagging behind, Chinese leader Mao Zedong introduced the Great Leap Forward, designed to speed up progress in both agricultural and industrial production. Claiming that China had to "walk on two legs," Mao urged people to produce greater output in both primary produce and steel production.
To increase steel production, Mao forced the masses into special communes to work on either steel or agricultural production, to drop other activities and concentrate on locating iron and steel that was not being used in its present location, and melt it down for use by the government. But as this diverted peasants from agricultural production, output levels declined and the economy "fell between two stools." Contrary to Mao's expectations, the economy weakened greatly and millions of people suffered from starvation and dislocation. Apart from the 1966 Cultural Revolution, the Great Leap Forward was one of Mao's greatest disasters.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Cuban Revolution (1959)",73,0,0,0
The democratic nations who lived in fear of \Jcommunism\j during the Cold War received a shock when Fidel Castro became communist dictator in \JCuba\j after a revolution which deposed the previous ruler General Batista. As Castro had been trying since an unsuccessful rebellion in 1953 to overthrow the dictatorial General Batista, Castro had gathered considerable grassroots support.
As the Cuban island lies just to the south of the United States, and the US had traditionally enjoyed access to naval ports and intervention rights in Cuban affairs, Castro's communist victory frightened the American Government, who in 1961, attempted to overthrow Castro and install a democratic leader through an abortive invasion, "The Bay of Pigs."
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Sino/Soviet Split (1960)",74,0,0,0
The denunciation of Stalin by Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev in 1956 ushered in a new more humane era for most nations within the international communist movement, apart from \JAlbania\j and China who chose to continue following the hard-line Stalinist policies independently of the Soviet Union's leadership. The Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party, Mao Zedong, took the most defiant stance, declaring the Soviet communists "revisionists" and "capitalist roaders" who needed to be resisted and opposed.
Despite the great financial and technical assistance provided by the USSR since 1949, Mao publicly disassociated China from the USSR in 1960, declaring China would go it alone and create its own communist model without further assistance from the world's communist leader-a move which damaged the Chinese economy.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Bay of Pigs (1961)",75,0,0,0
Worried by the communist takeover of nearby \JCuba\j following Castro's successful revolution, the American President J. F. Kennedy used the \JCIA\j to organize an anti-revolutionary invasion of \JCuba\j, designed to remove Castro and replace him with a democratic leader sympathetic to America. With the Cold War at its height, some Americans feared the international Soviet-backed communist movement could use \JCuba\j as a launching pad for an invasion of America. The invasion force was officially led by anti-communist exiles from \JCuba\j who hoped to reinstate democracy with the support of US forces. On April 17 the 1,500 American-backed exiles tried to beach their craft at the southern Bay of Pigs but were defeated by Castro's Cuban defenses who took 1,173 prisoners. The attempt to overthrow Castro was thus a disastrous failure which merely strengthened links between \JCuba\j and the USSR. The prisoners were later ransomed for $53 million in food and medicine.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Berlin Wall Erected (1961)",76,0,0,0
The communist East German Government constructed a concrete wall between East and West Berlin to keep the communists from escaping from the totalitarian communist in the East to the free market capitalist in the West. Although the wall stopped many illegal migrations, hundreds continued to try to escape and many were shot at the wall as they attempted to flee.
The West Germans built a museum in their honor on their side of the wall celebrating a range of successful escape attempts. The wall, which became a symbol of human rights repression and a target of demonstrators over the years, was increasingly attacked by West Germans as \Jcommunism\j softened. It was eventually opened in November 1989 and then dismantled, when \Jcommunism\j collapsed.
\BBerlin Wall Demolished (1989)\b
On November 10 the wall dividing communist East and democratic West Berlin was demolished by a combination of angry citizens and authorities as part of the collapse of hard-line \Jcommunism\j. Germans were then allowed to travel between east and west. This followed a period of increasing unrest, and demonstrations by Germans who wanted more freedom.
Thousands of East Germans had also begun escaping through \JHungary\j to West \JGermany\j and the East German communist government's President Erich Honecker had resigned. This led in turn to the resignation of the East German Government which was eventually replaced by a group of reformist politicians who formed a new more liberal government.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"World's First Astronaut (1961)",77,0,0,0
Soviet \JRussia\j's Yuri Gagarin became the world's first spaceman when he flew around the planet as an \Jastronaut\j in the \IVostok\i spaceship satellite. As manned space travel had been a dream of people on earth for many centuries, Gagarin became an international hero-especially in the Soviet Union.
Awarded the status of Hero of the Soviet Union, he then shared the Galabert Astronautical Prize with pioneering American \Jastronaut\j John Glenn in 1963. Gagarin was subsequently killed in a plane accident during military training in the USSR, after which his home town Gzhatsk was renamed Gagarin. Gagarin's flight spurred on the American-manned space travel program which succeeded in putting a man on the moon by 1969.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)",78,0,0,0
When the USA discovered Soviet missile sites in \JCuba\j, President J. F. Kennedy demanded the base be dismantled and the missiles returned to the USSR. To persuade the Cubans to do this, he surrounded the island with naval vessels forming a blockade. On October 28, Soviet leader Khrushchev then agreed to the dismantling of the missiles and shipping them back to the USSR.
But the incident created great international tension which some observers believed could have threatened to cause the Third World War. It inspired the USSR to fast track its nuclear weapon production program and worsened capitalist/communist Cold War relationships between the two superpowers, the USSR and the USA.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Algerian Independence (1962)",79,0,0,0
Algeria gained its independence from \JFrance\j in 1962 after a series of long and bitter conflicts, with Ahmed Ben Bella becoming the first Algerian president of the new republic. The French had occupied \JAlgeria\j and fought for control throughout the nineteenth century, using the legendary forces of the French Foreign Legion which captured many strategic positions placing them under French administration.
Although the French government controlled \JAlgeria\j from 1902, the Algerians resisted their colonial demands and resented their presence. By 1952 the Algerian National Liberation Front (FLN) waged a war against the French occupying forces, which eventually forced the French to abandon \JAlgeria\j. Even the Second World War hero Charles de Gaulle, who was re-elected in 1958 to win the Algerian war, was unable to stem the tide of anti-colonialism.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Kennedy Assassinated (1963)",80,0,0,0
American President J. F. Kennedy was assassinated in \JDallas\j, \JTexas\j on November 22, 1963 while riding in an open car on a motorcade through the streets during a state visit. Although the slaying has been investigated a number of times because of confusion surrounding the incident, the assassin was identified as Lee Harvey Oswald, a former marine who had served in the American forces and then lived in the USSR for some time until he was refused Soviet citizenship. However, Oswald was shot by Jack Ruby, before he could be brought to trial. Ruby was a \JDallas\j nightclub owner with links to the underworld and police.
The assassination shocked the world because Kennedy offered a younger, more intelligent, solution to America's domestic and global problems, promising welfare for the disadvantaged and global peace. Repeated allegations that the US military industrial complex ordered his assassination because he wanted to withdraw American forces from Vietnam and other conflicts, inspired two government inquiries. The second congressional committee found Kennedy was probably assassinated as a result of a conspiracy.
\BFor information of Kennedy's speech please click on\b \JKennedy, John F(itzgerald) speech\j\b
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"America's Involvement in the Vietnam War (1964-75)",81,0,0,0
The Vietnam War had its origins in the division of the country between the communist north and non-communist south during the 1954 Geneva Settlement. By 1964, the civil war in Vietnam between north and south had escalated, when the new pro-war US President L. B. Johnson's strongly anti-communist American government started bombing the communist north on behalf of the anti-communist south. America had been helping the south with aid and military advisers from 1961 and in 1965, decided to send soldiers to fight.
By 1968, the US had 500,000 troops on the ground supported by her Allies, including an infantry battalion sent by \JAustralia\j. Led by Ho Chi Minh, the communist north defeated the south with its American Allies and other democratic supporters. The Americans withdrew from Vietnam in 1973. The communists then advanced south, capturing \JSaigon\j in 1975, renaming it Ho Chi Minh City. By 1975 when the war ended, the US had lost 50,000 troops.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Civil Rights Bill (1964)",82,0,0,0
President L. B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Bill in America, confirming legal enforcement of guarantees of equal treatment of black Americans, who had been discriminated against previously. Since they were forcefully kidnapped and transported to the United States as slaves, black people had suffered badly at the hands of their white masters who made them work hard and treated them badly.
Conditions improved after \Jslavery\j was abolished, once the northern American anti-slavery forces defeated the southern pro-slavery forces in the Civil War of 1861-65. Discrimination continued, however, with anti-black groups like the Ku Klux Klan persecuting blacks, inspiring a series of civil rights campaigns led in the 1960s by Dr Martin Luther King until his assassination in 1968. The civil rights campaigners forced the legislators to add a bill to the American constitution guaranteeing-at least on paper-equal rights to black and white Americans with penalties for abuse.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Rhodesian Independence (1965)",83,0,0,0
Rhodesian political leader Ian Smith declared his nation's independence from Britain in 1965 after many years of political struggle. Rhodesia was named after British-born South African statesman Cecil Rhodes (1853-1902), who had been elected to the Cape House of Assembly. This enabled him to secure a charter over an area of southern Africa in 1889 for the British South African Company, which was subsequently named Rhodesia after him.
After a period during which it was administered by the British South African Company, Rhodesia developed into a self-governing British colony (1923). However, the British refused to allow full independence under African rule, so the white majority government declared their independence unilaterally in 1965. African political movements then fought for control and gained full independence in 1980, under black leader Robert Mugabe, for the area which they renamed Zimbabwe.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"America Bombs Vietnam (1965)",84,0,0,0
After assisting anti-communist South Vietnam fight the communist north from 1961 with "military advisers" and aid, US President Johnson ordered the bombing of the port of \JHaiphong\j which served \JHanoi\j. Although the US had from 1965 committed an increasing number of troops to help the South Vietnamese fight the communists, and by 1968 had 500,000 soldiers on the ground, this single act of bombing escalated the conflict into a serious war.
The bombing also sparked anti-war demonstrations among students in USA and around the world. Despite their heavier firepower, the Americans were defeated by the Vietnamese communists and had to retreat by 1973.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Chinese Cultural Revolution (1966)",85,0,0,0
Mao Zedong organized a political revolution from 1966 to his death in 1976, aimed at stopping the communist revolution from stagnating. Calling this upheaval the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, he ordered younger communists to form into Red Guards and overthrow older entrenched communist authorities in schools, universities, hospitals, and political institutions.
The Red Guards went too far, however, punishing authorities, banishing them to forced labor camps in the country, torturing and killing tens of thousands of innocent officials, and destroying beautiful architectural treasures and artifacts.
Mao aimed to suppress any challenge from his political enemies like Liu Shaoqi (who was imprisoned and died in 1969). Mao wrecked the economic, social and political life in China for ten years and ruined the country's heritage.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Greek Monarchy Overthrown (1967)",86,0,0,0
A revolutionary junta rose up against the Greek King Constantine, taking charge of the government and expelling the King from the palace, forcing him to flee to England. Although King Constantine tried to organize a counter-revolutionary force to regain his crown, he failed, and the monarchy was abolished in 1969.
Although the military junta controlled the government until 1974, it was unpopular and out of keeping with the centuries of ancient Greek democratic tradition, and there was great rejoicing when democracy was restored.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Arab/Israeli War (1967)",87,0,0,0
The Israel army sparked a major conflict known as "the Six Day War" when it invaded the \JSinai\j desert, occupied the \JSinai\j peninsula, Gaza Strip, Golan Heights, ancient city of \JJerusalem\j, strategic locations along the Suez Canal and areas of Jordan and \JSyria\j. The Arab world fought back with Egyptian leader Nasser leading a United Arab Republic force against the Jews. The Israelis won major territorial gains, however, before peace was negotiated leaving many dead and 300,000 refugees homeless.
The war was the third in a series of Arab/Israeli wars and followed the 1948 and 1956 conflicts when Israel had tried to occupy the \JSinai\j.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Pueblo Incident (1968)",88,0,0,0
The North Korean communist government captured an American Intelligence ship \IPueblo,\i which was gathering information off the North Korean coast. The \IPueblo\i (named after the American Indian tribe) was part of the US military campaign to stop communist governments spreading their global influence.
As the Americans were fighting against \Jcommunism\j in Vietnam, they needed as much early warning information about the communists as they could get. The North Koreans, however, seized the ship and imprisoned the crew. After a period of tense negotiations, the crew was released in December and the incident was over.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"USSR Invades Czechoslovakia (1968)",89,0,0,0
The USSR army invaded \JCzechoslovakia\j to suppress an anti-Soviet democratic freedom movement which had developed after the soft-line communist leader Alexander Dubcek came to power in early 1968 as First Secretary of the Communist Party of \JCzechoslovakia\j. Although there were different attempts at liberalization and dramatic protests, including students setting fire to themselves, it was not till Dubcek's appointment that the liberalization movement flourished.
Although the USSR crushed this uprising known as the "Prague Spring" and retained its control over \JCzechoslovakia\j until 1989, the collapse of \Jcommunism\j that year ushered in a more democratic system of government and inspired the break-up of \JCzechoslovakia\j into constituent republics.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Martin Luther King Assassinated (1968)",90,0,0,0
In 1968, a gunman, James Earl Ray, assassinated leading human rights activist Dr Martin Luther King in Memphis \JTennessee\j. King, a black minister of religion, was a leading civil rights and race relations campaigner in America. A great orator and advocate of peaceful resistance in the tradition of India's great civil rights campaigner Mahatma Ghandi, he challenged and helped overturn the segregation laws in the southern states of America.
In 1964 King won both the Nobel Peace Prize and Kennedy Peace Prize. His assassination spurred civil rights campaigners on, giving them the resolve to win further victories for black Americans in the struggle against racist policies of the white majority.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Student Riots (1968)",91,0,0,0
Angered by the escalation of American involvement in the Vietnam War since the mid-1960s, and inspired by mounting protests against the war, students around the democratic world mounted a series of protest marches and demonstrations. Students were empowered by a series of rock concerts held around the world starring radical musicians singing protest songs, smoking the prohibited narcotic plant marijuana (dope), wearing flowers in their hair, and urging their fellow citizens to "make love not war."
The conflict between the students and the authorities peaked later with the Kent State University massacre where police shot four protesting students. The protests illustrated the unpopularity of the war to politicians and helped persuade the American Government to withdraw from Vietnam by 1973.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Sino/Soviet Border War (1969)",92,0,0,0
Tensions which had risen between former communist Allies, China and the Soviet Union following their Sino/Soviet split in 1960, sparked a border conflict which gave rise to fears of full-scale war between the two giants. Mao Zedong threatened to attack the Soviet Union because he claimed that the USSR had taken the "revisionist road" and become "a running dog of American imperialism" because of its softer communist policy following the 1956 de-Stalinization.
Mao was also using the USSR as an outside threat to unite his people who he was forcing at the same time to participate in his Cultural Revolution. The USSR for its part claimed the Chinese had encroached on territorial areas along their mutual border that traditionally belonged to them.
Although the war of words continued for some time, and there were skirmishes along the border in the region to the north of China, conflict was averted.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Moon Landing (1969)",93,0,0,0
American astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin flew 344,400 km (238,850 miles) from earth in the Apollo II \Jspacecraft\j and landed on the moon-earth's only natural satellite which is one quarter the size of our planet.
With millions of humans watching live via \Jtelevision\j, Neil Armstrong, the first man to actually step on the moon, ushered in a new space age when he stepped down from his \Jspacecraft\j on July 22, 1969 onto the lunar surface. Realizing the significance of this historic moment he said, "This is one small step for man but a giant leap for mankind." He was followed by Buzz Aldrin who also walked on the moon, while a third member of the expedition Mike Collins remained in the mother \Jspacecraft\j.
The mission, with its successful return to earth, has been rated as one of the greatest achievements of the human race.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"US Invades Cambodia (1970)",94,0,0,0
Although the US was already fighting a losing war against communists in the Vietnam War, President Nixon committed troops to help the anti-communist forces stop communist rebels taking over neighboring \JCambodia\j. Anti-communist Cambodian Prime Minister Prince Sihanouk was deposed in 1970 by the communist rebels Khmer Rouge and was forced to flee. The North Vietnamese communists helped the communist Khmer Rouge, while the South Vietnamese and American troops helped Sihanouk and his anti-communist forces.
The communists won, and by 1975 renamed the country \JKampuchea\j installing dictator Pol Pot who forced the population to collectivize agriculture, killing an estimated 3 million peasants who resisted. Opposing forces then fought back, unseated Pol Pot's Khmer Rouge and reinstated Sihanouk, renaming the country \JCambodia\j which was rebuilt under a UN Peace Plan.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Indian/Pakistani War (1971)",95,0,0,0
The rivalry between India and \JPakistan\j following the partition of India by the British in 1947, flared up in 1971 when Indian and Pakistani forces attacked each other over border and other issues that had been simmering for years. This time it was the rebellion in East \JPakistan\j by separatists who wanted to break away from West \JPakistan\j and create an independent state-Bangladesh.
The opposing airforces attacked each other and fighting continued on the ground until the leaders of both sides negotiated the independence of \JBangladesh\j. The two sides had fought earlier in 1948 over Kashmir and Jammu, and tensions flared up from time to time over a continuing series of issues. The issues were not resolved for long, however, as they were rooted in basic differences-religious and ethnic-between the Muslim Pakistanis and Hindu Indians which continue to this day.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"US Bombs Hanoi (1971)",96,0,0,0
Desperate to win a war in the air that they were losing on the ground, the US began bombing the North Vietnamese communist capital of Hanoi-hoping to break the resolve of the communists. The bombing continued for a number of months until it was halted in 1972.
Although the bombs damaged the city and destroyed some key installations, the Vietnamese burrowed underground and continued to fight on the ground with great resolve, until they forced the Americans out of Vietnam and won the war in 1975. The Americans learned a lesson that greater firepower does not always win victory in war.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"US President Nixon Visits China (1972)",97,0,0,0
After waging war against Vietnam for a decade, and maintaining a hostile stance towards its giant communist neighbor, American president Richard Nixon ushered in a new era when he visited China in 1972. Talks between Chinese leader Mao Zedong and Nixon put an end to hostilities, softened relations, and opened the door to new political and economic relationships. Nixon's visit was a great coup for Mao, whose country was in turmoil caused by the Cultural Revolution (1966-76), and increased his standing at home and abroad. The visit was also a coup for Nixon whose country was troubled by domestic problems and who was himself involved in the \JWatergate\j scandal which was threatening to, and did eventually, force him from office.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"America Withdraws from Vietnam (1972)",98,0,0,0
Having lost the war in Vietnam, both on the ground and in the air, after ten years of fighting the Vietnamese communists, the Americans announced in 1972 that they would be withdrawing their troops. Although they were still fighting the war, they made the decision to de-escalate, withdrawing stage by stage in an attempt to stop the North Vietnamese communists from taking over \JSaigon\j and South Vietnam too soon.
As they had deployed 500,000 soldiers at the height of the war, this withdrawal took some time and was not completed until 1975 when the last American troops left Vietnam. Their withdrawal was an agonizing embarrassment for the world's greatest superpower which had been defeated by a small peasant nation in Indochina. The withdrawal after defeat was all the more painful as the Americans lost 50,000 soldiers in the war.
Palestinian terrorists protesting against Israeli policies broke into the athletes' village at the Munich Olympics, killed two Israeli athletes, then took nine other athletes hostage and issued a set of demands. West German police then surrounded the building and tried to persuade the \JArabs\j to negotiate. When talks failed, however, firing broke out and all nine Israeli hostages were killed as the West German police attempted to storm the building and free them.
It was the first such terrorist attack on a modern Olympic Games and added a new political dimension to security from then on. It was the second Olympic political incident in \JGermany\j, as Hitler had politicized the 1936 Olympics in Berlin, refusing to watch medals awarded to champion US black athlete Jessie Owens.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Watergate (1973)",100,0,0,0
After the \IWashington Post\i published details alleging US Republican President Richard Nixon had authorized Republican Party officials to break into the opposing Democrat campaign headquarters during the 1972 election campaign to obtain secrets to use against them, the media and a Senate committee of inquiry found the White House was involved.
Investigators obtained audio tapes that established that Nixon had discussed the break-in with party officials and had a "slush fund" for paying people who carried out unethical activities for him. With the public up in arms and the media and judicial system accusing him of undemocratic and dishonest behavior, Nixon eventually resigned rather than be impeached for obstructing justice and other crimes.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Anti-Marxist Chile Coup (1973)",101,0,0,0
The armed forces overthrew \JChile\j's Marxist President Salvador Allende (1908-73) and installed a military dictatorship crushing \JChile\j's short-lived attempt at \Jsocialism\j. Like South America's popular Marxist revolutionary Che Guevara (1928-67), Allende was a medical doctor turned political reformer, inspired by the suffering of the poorer classes.
Unlike Guevara, Allende created a socialist government not through revolution, but by coming up through the political ranks representing the left-wing in parliament. Having founded the Chilean Socialist Party in 1933, he served in the government as minister and senator before being elected in 1970 as President while leading the Socialist Party Unidad Popular. His socialist program threatened vested interests, however, so the military removed him.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Arab/Israeli War (1973)",102,0,0,0
The 1973 war was also called the Yom Kippur or Ramadan War. Tensions had grown ever since the Israelis had taken land from the Egyptians in the 1967 "Six Day War" which had included the Golan Heights, West Bank, Gaza Strip, and \JSinai\j Peninsula. Although there were few territorial gains on either side, the war confirmed the Israeli determination to expand the Jewish state.
The war concerned the international community which feared its spread. It also dislocated the lives of a large number of civilians, including an Australian tourist party who were encircled by the conflict until the fighting ceased.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Ethiopian Revolution (1974)",103,0,0,0
On September 12, Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie (1891-1975) was overthrown by a military coup after months of instability. Although a Crown Prince was installed, the monarchy was abolished. The Emperor, who was 82 years old and known as "the Lion of Judah," had himself led a revolution in 1916 against the old order and government of Lij Yasu. He had westernized the institutions of government and modernized the country.
Although he fled during the Italian occupation of 1935-36, he returned after the Second World War and helped organize the Organization of African Unity. A 1973 \Jfamine\j, economic collapse, and industrial unrest precipitated the revolution against him. He was held in great respect throughout his life and became a hero for the Rastafarian movement.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Nixon Resigns (1974)",104,0,0,0
On August 8, President Nixon became the first US President to resign after he was implicated in the \JWatergate\j scandal. This scandal, reported by the media, revealed that his Republican Party had broken into the opposing Democratic headquarters on June 17, 1972 and stolen documents. Nixon resigned because he was about to be impeached by the independent legal system which had already charged several of the leading members of his government.
Although a blow to the office of president and a personal embarrassment to Nixon, his threatened \Jimpeachment\j and consequent resignation demonstrated the democratic value of the political system in which an independent judiciary could dismiss the head of the executive.
\B\IFor information on Nixon's speech please click on\b\i \JNixon, Richard M(ilhous) speech\j\b
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Communists Take Vietnam (1975)",105,0,0,0
On April 30, North Vietnamese and Viet Cong soldiers took over \JSaigon\j, the capital of South Vietnam, thus gaining victory over America and its Allies. Although America and its Allies had begun withdrawing since 1972, their remaining troops and officials had to be evacuated by helicopters from the roof of the American Embassy in \JSaigon\j in a dramatic last-minute rescue.
The defeat of the world's greatest superpower by the tiny nation of Vietnam was a turning point in the history of the century. Even the limitless firepower of the USA and 500,000 US soldiers had been unable to stop the communists from converting the south to \Jcommunism\j, as their communist leader Ho Chi Minh had said they would more than 30 years earlier.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Communists Take Cambodia (1975)",106,0,0,0
On April 17 the Khmer Rouge communist army captured Phnom Penh, transforming \JCambodia\j into a totalitarian communist dictatorship and changing its name to \JKampuchea\j. The communists had been fighting for control of \JCambodia\j since they rebelled, deposed non-communist leader Prince Sihanouk in 1970 and created the Khmer Republic. The US and South Vietnam had tried in vain to stop the communist takeover.
The new communist leader Pol Pot ushered in a period of draconian terror as he forced the country to collectivize agriculture, killing an estimated 3 million people in the process. In 1979 the Vietnamese re-captured Phnom Penh, driving the Khmer Rouge into the countryside, and restoring the name \JCambodia\j, later installing Prince Sihanouk. The United Nations then supervised a return to normal by the mid-1990s.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Per≤n Deposed (1976)",107,0,0,0
On March 24 Argentinean President Isabelita Per≤n was deposed by an army coup which installed a military dictatorship ending a period of popular rule by members of the celebrated Per≤n family. Isabelita's husband, Juan Per≤n, was one of Argentina's most loved leaders having improved conditions for the working class upon seizing power as a military leader in 1943 and ruling until 1955.
Although deposed himself during the economic crisis of 1955, Juan Per≤n was recalled in 1973 where he assumed leadership and then won a popular election. After Isabelita took over when her husband died in 1974, she proved unable to govern, inspiring the military to depose and exile her from Argentina.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Death of Mao Zedong (1976)",108,0,0,0
The death of Mao Zedong on September 9, 1976 brought an end to the hard-line communist party era in China, and ushered in a new softer ideological period that eventually led to the partial adoption of the very capitalist ways which Mao had so vehemently opposed.
Mao had led the revolution in the early days from its inception through to the Long March, the defeat of the Guomindang and his proclamation of the People's Republic of China in 1949. He maintained control through a series of power struggles and purges, including the 1958 Great Leap Forward and the 1966 Cultural Revolution, always purging his opponents and consolidating the nation-wide personality \Jcult\j of "Chairman Mao." He transformed China from an isolated and backward foreign \Jvassal\j to a united independent republic and a full member of the United Nations.
Few rulers in history had achieved such absolute power and after Mao Zedong's death both government and economic activities were decentralized.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Concorde Flights (1976)",109,0,0,0
On May 24 the first \Jsupersonic\j airliner \JConcorde\j began transatlantic flights from London to New York. The new \Jaircraft\j reduced the flight time to three and a half hours. Its maximum speed is 2.2 times the speed of sound and maximum range is 6,400 kilometers or 4,000 miles. The \Jaircraft\j normally cruises at twice the speed of sound-2,000 kilometers per hour or 1,300 miles per hour.
An Anglo/French construction, \JConcorde\j was built by the British \JAircraft\j Corporation and Aerospatiale of \JFrance\j. The \Jaircraft\j began full-time operations in January, 1976 and led the \Jsupersonic\j \Jaircraft\j industry until 1996, when the Russians launched another version they claimed was faster than \JConcorde\j.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Soweto Massacre (1976)",110,0,0,0
On June 18 South African police killed 176 protesters and injured 1,228 in the worst racial conflict since the creation of the South African Union in 1910. Black South Africans rioted for three days protesting against racial restrictions. The protest started in black dominated schools when students protested against having to use the white \JAfrikaans\j language instead of their own black Bantu tongue.
Police shot dead a 13-year-old boy sparking protests in the black township of Soweto (where 1 million blacks lived). Police then dropped tear gas from helicopters and surrounded the township with a 1,000-strong cordon to suppress the riot. Although the police succeeded, the riots strengthened the black cause enabling them to claim victory by the 1990s and vote in a black majority government.
To mark the 200th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence on July 4, the government and people of the United States celebrated it with a nation-wide celebration commemorating the war, which gave rise to the creation of the American system of government and nation. The highlights included a sail past of a fleet of tall ships from 31 nations which sailed up the Hudson River watched by 3 million spectators.
The Queen of England, Elizabeth II also visited the US from July 7 on an official state visit. The people of America participated enthusiastically in the bicentenary with committees organizing activities around the nation, including special events in the political capital, Washington D.C., and historic towns like Philadelphia.
On July 4 Israeli commandos stormed a hijacked plane at \JEntebbe\j Airport, \JUganda\j and freed the hostages. Palestinian terrorists had hijacked an Air \JFrance\j 330-B airbus loaded with Israelis soon after it took off from \JAthens\j, forcing it to fly to \JEntebbe\j.
The Israeli commandos flew into \JEntebbe\j Airport under the cover of darkness in three Hercules C-130 transport planes, leapt out, stormed the plane and killed seven terrorists before releasing the hostages and flying them to Israel. The rescue set new standards in anti-terrorist response, sending a warning to future would-be terrorists.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"South African Homelands (1976)",113,0,0,0
On October 25 the black rural homeland of Transkei was the first area to be granted independence by the white South African \Japartheid\j regime in 1976. Having originally gained self-government in 1963, Transkei (population 3,250,000 in 1992) was established as a model South African Bantustan. The capital is Umtata and it is the traditional territory of the Xhosa tribe. In 1987, the military led a bloodless coup out of keeping with democratic ideals, but the conditions improved in the early 1990s when Nelson Mandela's black majority government began to rule. With an area of 43,798 square kilometers or 16,910 square miles the Transkei lies between the Kei and Mtamvuna Rivers on the Indian Ocean in south-east South Africa.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Jimmy Carter Elected US President (1976)",114,0,0,0
On November 2 Democratic Party leader Jimmy Carter was elected President of the USA. It was the first win in eight years for the Democrats who came in as a fresh "new broom" party after the troubled years of the Republican government, dominated by the \JWatergate\j scandal, in which President Nixon was implicated in the theft of Democrat documents stolen from party offices.
A former peanut farmer from Plains, Georgia, Carter became the first President from the South to lead America since the 1861 Civil War, when the North had defeated the South to abolish \Jslavery\j from the USA forever.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Pakistani Military Coup (1977)",115,0,0,0
On July 5, \JPakistan\j's army overthrew the Bhutto government and imposed military law. The military then tried Bhutto for corruption and executed him in 1978. After graduating from Oxford and \JCalifornia\j universities, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (1928-79) practiced as a lawyer before joining the Pakistani Government in 1958. He became a minister for Foreign Affairs in 1963.
Faction fighting then forced him out of the cabinet, so Bhutto formed his own \JPakistan\j People's Party in 1967. He was voted back in as President after \JBangladesh\j (formerly East Pakistan) broke away in the 1971 war and introduced a series of social and economic reforms. These angered the right-wing Islamic forces whose leader General Zia ul-Haq deposed Bhutto.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Voyager Space Mission (1977)",116,0,0,0
America's National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) launched one of the world's most sophisticated missions into outer space designed at exploring the planets past Mars, including Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. NASA launched two Mariner series spaceships \I(Voyager 1\i and \IVoyager 2)\i which eventually reached Jupiter in March, 1979 before using a gravity boost from Jupiter to fly on to Saturn arriving in November, 1980.
\IVoyager 1\i then flew out of the system while \IVoyager 2\i flew on to Uranus, arriving in January, 1986, before flying on to Neptune arriving in August, 1989-sending back to earth unprecedented detail on Uranus and Neptune. Both \Jspacecraft\j were still sending back information on the outer solar system well into the 1990s.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Pol Pot Rules Cambodia (1977)",117,0,0,0
The communist military leader who had led the brutal Khmer Rouge to power was named secretary-general of \JCambodia\j's communist party in 1977. Pol Pot (1926-96) trained in Ho Chi Minh's anti-French colonial resistance forces in the 1940s, where he played an active role.
He then graduated to a pro-Chinese communist party of \JCambodia\j before traveling to Paris where he studied (1949-53) and worked as a teacher (1954-63) before taking over the leadership of the Khmer Rouge guerilla army dedicated to overthrowing the government and seizing control of \JCambodia\j in 1976. Pol Pot was then elected party chairman and began to collectivize \JCambodia\j, killing millions in the process before being overthrown in 1979 by Vietnamese army forces.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Biko Dies in Prison (1977)",118,0,0,0
The funeral on September 5 for South African black activist leader Steve Biko, who died in police custody after allegedly being beaten to death by white prison guards, sent a wave of remorse around anti-racist circles in the western world. Biko was a threat to the white minority government because he founded and led the "black consciousness" movement which elevated black people in South Africa and gave them hope.
He had also led black protests as inaugural president of the all-black South African Students Organization (1969) and president of the Black People's Convention (1972). Determined to stop his popular leadership galvanizing blacks into action, the white government issued orders restricting his freedom and detained him regularly before putting him in prison. He was reportedly bashed to death, becoming a martyr for majority black rule, which was achieved by the 1990s.
Biko's white journalist ally Donald Woods helped produce a successful film \ICry Freedom\i in 1987 which told the story.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Central African Coronation (1977)",119,0,0,0
Jean Bokassa of the Central African Republic (CAR) crowned himself Emperor Bokassa I during a lavish $25 million coronation ceremony modeled on the British monarchy. His ill-founded and illegitimate coronation was ridiculed by the international community which also criticized the astronomical cost of the coronation that was reputed to be one quarter of the CAR income.
The unpopular Bokassa was overthrown in 1979 by rebel forces who abolished his empire and installed the more acceptable and less conceited David Daco as president.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Death of Elvis Presley (1977)",120,0,0,0
The sudden death of American rock-and-roll superstar Elvis Presley, 42, who was found dead on August 16, allegedly from a drug overdose, inspired an international wave of mourning for this popular pioneer of modern music. Born in 1935, Elvis Aaron Presley graduated from church choir singing, modeling his singing and \Jguitar\j playing on black blues and gospel singers before recording his first songs in 1953 in \JTennessee\j.
Promoter Tom Parker then picked the commercial potential of Elvis and manufactured a professional career that took the rock star to the top. From early hits like "Heartbreak Hotel" (1956) Elvis created a sexy hip-wiggling performing style that excited millions of fans. His 45 best selling pop tunes, and a range of films (one featuring his national army service in \JGermany\j \IGI Blues)\i won him a place in music history and his home Graceland became a shrine.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Zaire War (1977)",121,0,0,0
Conflict broke out in Zaire between opposing forces trying to wrest control of resources-rich Zaire. Secessionist rebels from \JKatanga\j Province (later named Shaba), backed by Angolan, Cuban, and Russian forces had earlier tried to break away from greater Zaire in 1964 giving rise to the 1977 conflict.
The rebels wanted to control and exploit the rich mineral base in \JKatanga\j (south central Zaire). French and \JBelgium\j paratroopers evacuated Europeans from the region and America airlifted troops from Morocco and other African countries to help crush the rebellion. By 1978 the larger Zaire force had put down the rebellion and established a one-party state.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Nicaragua War (1978)",122,0,0,0
Left-wing Sandanista guerillas waged a national campaign of violence, attempting to overthrow the government of President Anastasio Somoza. Anastasio was the third in line of succession of a Somoza family dictatorship which started in 1934 when his father seized control. The anti-government revolt began on January 23 with a national strike in protest against the Somoza government.
On February 12, the Frente Sandinista de Liberaci≤n then prepared for civil war, which they won after a bitter struggle enabling them to install a socialist government supported by the Soviet Union. The USA then fought against this government supporting rival contras until elections were held and President Violeta Barrios de Chamorro was elected in 1990.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"John Paul II Becomes Pope (1978)",123,0,0,0
On October 16 \JPoland\j's John Paul II became the first non-Italian in 450 years to be chosen as the leader of the Roman Catholic Church. He succeeded John Paul I who died in his sleep after only reigning for 33 days (after succeeding Pope Paul VI who had died of a heart attack on August 6). The Church of England responded by sending the \JArchbishop\j of Canterbury for the first time since England broke with the Roman Catholic Church in the sixteenth century.
Originally named Karol Jozef Wojtyla, the new pope was born in Wadowice and educated and ordained in \JPoland\j where he taught moral \Jtheology\j at the Universities of \JLublin\j and \JCracow\j. He served as \JArchbishop\j and Metropolitan of \JCracow\j (1964-78) before being appointed Cardinal in 1967 and then the Pope in 1978. He brought a fresh approach, focusing on international visits where he spoke to the faithful at large religious rallies, urging his followers to address the problems facing the modern world.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"US and China Create Diplomatic Relations (1978)",124,0,0,0
On December 15, China and America established full diplomatic relations for the first time since Mao Zedong's communist party established the People's Republic of China. The anti-communist US had opposed Mao and his revolution supporting the opposing Guomindang forces of Chiang Kai-shek, which had retreated to \JTaiwan\j after being defeated by Mao establishing what they claimed was the true China.
Although there were effectively two "Chinas" for decades (one small capitalist island and one large mainland communist state), it was only a matter of time before communist China would win support even from vehemently anti-communist nations like the USA who decided to normalize relations following the death of the hard-liner Mao in 1976. The US was also interested in establishing new trading relations with the large market that China represented.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Britain's First Female Prime Minister (1979)",125,0,0,0
Britain became one of the first major world powers to elect a woman to lead their nation when Conservative Party leader Margaret Thatcher won the general election on May 4. An Oxford graduate who worked as a research chemist and then a lawyer, she entered Parliament in 1954, becoming Minister for Education (1970-74). She then succeeded Ted Heath as leader of the Conservative Party in opposition in 1975 and led the party to victory in 1979.
As Prime Minister she reshaped British social, economic, and political life along hard-line "right-wing" political lines, privatizing a range of government industries and services, improving efficiency but dividing Britain. Although she survived until 1990, becoming the longest serving Prime Minister, she was voted out by her party which replaced her with John Major.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Idi Amin Expelled from Uganda (1979)",126,0,0,0
In January \JTanzania\j's army invaded \JUganda\j, overpowered the troops of the tyrannical dictator Idi Amin and expelled the brutal leader Idi Amin himself-thus ending years of a reign of terror. They installed Yusuf Lule as the new President. As Amin's troops had attacked \JTanzania\j the previous year, Tanzanian leader Julius Nyerere took revenge destroying Msaka, Mbarasa, and then seizing the capital \JKampala\j.
The international community had condemned Amin for ruining \JUganda\j and torturing his opponents, and only the maverick Muslim leader of \JLibya\j, Colonel Gaddafi, provided military support for Amin. \JTanzania\j's "army of liberation" soon occupied most of \JUganda\j, driving out Amin supporters and 100,000 refugees, ending another black chapter in Africa's political history.
On February 1 Ayatollah Khomeini returned to \JIran\j as leader after 16 years in exile. Despite representing a political and social throwback to the past, he met little opposition, as on January 16 the Ayatollah's followers known as mullahs, had forced the tyrannical Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi of \JIran\j into exile.
Protesters claimed the Shah was ruining \JIran\j economically, creating a poorer class of starving masses, terrorizing people with his secret police and importing the worst of western values. The Ayatollah then introduced a period of Islamic Fundamentalist Government, during which he took 100 American Embassy staff and marines hostage for an extended period of time as part of his anti-western program.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"USSR Invades Afghanistan (1979)",128,0,0,0
In December the Soviet Union expanded its communist empire by installing a pro-Soviet government in \JAfghanistan\j. The USSR had infiltrated \JAfghanistan\j, exploiting the battle between government forces which the Soviet Union supported and Muslim rebels supported by \JPakistan\j. The USSR supplied the government with arms and ammunition, sending in 5,000 Soviet combat troops which took control of \JAfghanistan\j.
In return, the USSR gained political influence and by December was able to install a puppet government arousing the anger of the international community. The Soviet Government proved unpopular and opposing forces fought back until eventually some years later they forced the USSR to retreat.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Vietnam Invades Cambodia (1979)",129,0,0,0
The Vietnamese army of the newly united communist Vietnam invaded \JCambodia\j to destroy the fraudulent "communist" dictatorship of the Khmer Rouge led by the murderous dictator Pot Pot (real name Saloth Sar). After fierce fighting they defeated the ragged and demoralized forces of Pol Pot and installed a new communist regime under Heng Samrin. The population supported the Vietnamese as Pol Pot had tortured and murdered millions of them (an estimated one-quarter of the population).
The Vietnamese forces discovered 3 million mass graves of Khmer Rouge victims in torture camps where there were piles of victim's skulls. In a so-called "retaliation" action, Chinese forces sympathetic to Pol Pot's brand of \Jcommunism\j invaded Vietnam on February 17; after which thousands of Vietnamese tried to leave Vietnam by sea, creating a new class of "boat people" seeking refuge in Western democracies.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Marxists Seize Nicaragua (1979)",130,0,0,0
On July 19 the Marxist-inspired Sandinistas overthrew \JNicaragua\j's President Anastasio Somoza after a violent battle and installed a new Marxist government. The Marxist government took over the Nicaraguan capital \JManagua\j, occupying the National Palace amidst great popular celebrations. Somoza had ruled for 12 years as an authoritarian dictator supported only by close allies and the United States, which preferred to support anti-communist forces at any cost. It was a victory for the socialist people's cause over the American-supported Somozan Government.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Mountbatten Assassinated (1979)",131,0,0,0
On August 27 the Irish Republican Army (IRA) murdered Earl Mountbatten of \JBurma\j (1900-79), who was a cousin of Queen Elizabeth II, by bombing a fishing boat he was on near his summer home at Mullaghmoor in Ireland. The radical IRA were keen to promote their campaign against the British presence in Ireland.
Mountbatten may have been targeted because he had served as the last Viceroy of India representing Britain's government on the sub-continent. He had also served as the Chief of the Defense Force Staff, First Sea Lord, and had helped lead Second World War operations including the \JD-Day\j Landing and the defeat of the Japanese in India and \JBurma\j.
On April 18 Zimbabwe became an independent nation under the leadership of Robert Mugabe who was elected Prime Minister on March 4. The former nation of Rhodesia became the state of Zimbabwe on August 26, 1979 (with Bishop Abel Muzorewa elected as the first prime minister). The new nation took its name from the Zimbabwe ruins in the south of the country which were once the seat of a powerful indigenous culture.
Rhodesia had been named after British pioneer Cecil Rhodes who had led settlement parties into the region the previous century. The transition was negotiated at a Commonwealth conference held in Lancaster House, London. It symbolized another milestone in Europe's declining control and influence over Africa in the long and bitter de-colonization process.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Death of Yugoslavia's Marshal Tito (1980)",133,0,0,0
The death on May 4 of Marshal Josip Broz Tito (1892-1980), who ruled Yugoslavia from 1953-80, ended an era as it eventually led to the break-up of Yugoslavia and the start of a bitter war that continued into the second half of the 1990s. Tito had ruled Yugoslavia since he helped liberate the nation with the partisans from the fascist control of the axis powers at the end of the Second World War in 1945.
Apart from being a wartime hero, he had distinguished himself by separating Yugoslavia from the Soviet Union's Eastern Bloc of communist nations in 1948. He had created a non-aligned identity for Yugoslavia which served as a model for the post-war non-alignment movement for nations free of USA or USSR dominance. Without Tito's control, Yugoslavia eventually broke up into a number of ethnic, religious, and geographic regions which soon began fighting each other for territory and power.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"US/Iran Hostage Crisis (1980)",134,0,0,0
US President Carter ordered an airborne commando raid to rescue a party of 53 American hostages seized by Iranian President Ayatollah's Khomeini's Muslim Fundamentalists. The operation failed when helicopters broke down and eight Americans were killed and five wounded in an accidental collision.
The Secretary of State, Cyrus Vance, resigned over the badly organized mission and was replaced by Senator Edmund Muskie. On April 7, the US broke relations with \JIran\j, which eventually responded to pressure and released the weakest hostage, Richard Queen, on July 11 (although it continued to hold other hostages).
\BLondon's \JIran\j Hostage Crisis (1980)\b
On April 30, a group of terrorists (Group of the Martyr) seized the Iranian Embassy in London for five days, forcing a state of siege on London police. The terrorists demanded their Arab allies be released from an Iranian prison where they were being held by the Ayatollah Khomeini.
The terrorists took 19 hostages and killed 2 of them before the British Special Air Service (SAS) troops stormed the building, killed 5 of the 6 gunmen, and released all the remaining hostages, thus ending the siege. The SAS raid was voted an outstanding success by the international community.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"British Oil Rig Disaster (1980)",135,0,0,0
In March a semi-submersible oil rig, the Alexander Kielland, collapsed 200 miles off the coast of \JNorway\j, killing 123 workers. It was one of the worst accidents in the history of North Sea oil exploration. The 10,000 ton rig collapsed when one of its legs gave way and sank in 80 meters of water. It was an accommodation platform for oil workers in the Phillips \JPetroleum\j \JEdda\j field. The British Government demanded safety checks on all rigs and standards were improved as a result.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Solidarity Strikes in Poland (1980)",136,0,0,0
On September 17 Polish socialist activist Lech Walesa was elected Chairman of the National Committee of Solidarity, creating a new anti-communist force in Polish and European politics. He had led a nation-wide shipyard strike starting in Gdansk at the Lenin shipyard and eventually involving 500,000 workers.
Walesa helped create a new independent trade union "Solidarity" which demanded new labor laws, freedom of speech, and the release of political prisoners. Solidarity held its first national conference in 1981 and eventually Walesa went on to lead the nation, when in 1990 he was elected President of \JPoland\j.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Start of Iran/Iraq War (1980)",137,0,0,0
War broke out between \JIraq\j and \JIran\j when \JIraq\j's army crossed the border and invaded its neighbor \JIran\j in an attempt to gain control of \JAbadan\j and the vital Shatt Al-Arab waterway. \JIran\j, which was ruled by the fundamentalist Muslim Ayatollah Khomeini, was already quarreling with the United States and could ill-afford to take on another enemy. Nevertheless, the war continued on and off through most of the 1980s, claiming the lives of thousands on both sides.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Reagan Elected US President (1980)",138,0,0,0
On November 4 former popular film star and Republican Party nominee Ronald Reagan won the USA Presidency, becoming 40th President of the US after a landslide victory over Jimmy Carter. This gave Republicans control over the Senate for the first time since 1964.
Reagan, former governor of \JCalifornia\j and known as an extreme right winger, reflected a new mood of \Jconservatism\j, winning 489 electoral votes, well above the 270 needed to win, compared to the Democratic Party nominee Jimmy Carter who only won 49 votes. He ushered in a new conservative era.
\B\IFor information on Reagan's speech please click on\b\i \JReagan, Ronald (Wilson) speech\j\b
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Norway's First Female Prime Minister (1981)",139,0,0,0
Gro Harlem Brundtland, the leader of the Labor Party, was elected to office to become \JNorway\j's first female Prime Minister. A former physician who worked in public medicine, she had also served as environment minister.
Although conservatives gained power through a minority government led by Kare Willoch later in the year, she went on to chair the World Commission on Environment and Development, investigating environmental issues, producing the environment textbook \IOur Common Future\i for the international community and the European Community Parliament.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"China's Gang of Four Death Sentence (1981)",140,0,0,0
On January 25 the "Gang of Four" which included Mao Zedong's widow was sentenced to death amidst great rejoicing. Mao's widow Jiang Qing, 67, was arrested in October, 1976 one month after Mao died, and put on trial for destroying Chinese social life and torturing hundreds of thousands through her cruel "cultural revolution" campaigns aimed at ruining people she did not like.
The dominant monster in the declining years of Mao, who operated as his right-hand agent, she was personally responsible for more human tragedies than any other party official. As her fellow Gang of Four members aided and abetted her draconian punishments, the public were pleased to hear their sentence was execution. This death sentence was, however, later commuted. On June 29, Hu Yaobang replaced Hua Guofeng as Party Chairman enabling China to settle down into a more conservative post-Mao political regime.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Socialists Claim France (1981)",141,0,0,0
On May 10, Franτois Mitterrand was elected to power as the President of \JFrance\j representing the Socialist Party. He defeated conservative leader Giscard d'Estaing. In subsequent elections the Socialists won nation-wide, giving this left-wing party an unprecedented control over \JFrance\j.
Some observers saw this socialist victory as a revival of modern Marxist \Jideology\j which now acquired a more respectable image having for the first time been voted into office in traditionally conservative \JFrance\j.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Royal Wedding (1981)",142,0,0,0
On July 29 the heir to the British throne, Prince of Wales, married Lady Diana Spencer in London. The long-awaited wedding was televised from start to finish and watched by an estimated audience of 750 million. It was a big event with hundreds of thousands of well-wishers lining the streets to watch the procession of horses and carriages to the cathedral. Prince Charles was led down the aisle by the admirals of the fleet and escorted by his two brothers Prince Andrew and Prince Edward.
A colorful fairytale wedding from ancient times in a modern setting, it touched the hearts of millions around the world. Sadly, after having two children the royal couple separated in the early 1990s and were granted a divorce in 1996.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Assassination of President Sadat in Egypt (1981)",143,0,0,0
On October 6 Mohammed Anwar el-Sadat, who was President of \JEgypt\j from 1970-81, was assassinated by soldiers when he was previewing a military parade in \JCairo\j. His vice president Hosni Mubarak succeeded him as president. Sadat was murdered by Islamic Fundamentalists who believed he was too friendly with their arch-enemy Israel, with whom he had negotiated a peace treaty in 1979.
On September 15, 1980, Sadat had also expelled 1,500 Soviet personnel from \JEgypt\j. The assassins had smuggled themselves into the military procession in a truck and jumped out when the truck drew level with the official viewing area, rushing towards Sadat firing automatic guns and throwing grenades.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"First Reusable Space Shuttle Flight (1981)",144,0,0,0
On April 12 people on planet Earth entered a new era of space age when America's National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) launched the first of their reusable space shuttles-\IColumbia.\i This lowered the cost of once-off missions which amounted to millions and used up a \Jspacecraft\j every time.
The successful lift-off from Kennedy Space Center in \JFlorida\j was greeted with applause by the international space community anxious to find cheaper ways of extending space exploration.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"First Case of AIDS Reported (1981)",145,0,0,0
Although the disease may have been around for some time, the first case of AIDS was officially reported in 1981. AIDS (acquired immune-deficiency syndrome) is caused by an infection with a human immune-deficiency virus (HIV). It is transmitted by direct blood or seminal contact and may have originated among African monkeys.
The disease has become most prevalent in homosexual and bi-sexual men and also in intravenous drug users. The risk of acquiring AIDS is increased with casual sexual relations. The disease has struck some areas more than others including San Francisco, New York City, Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa. Thousands of victims had died by the mid-1990s and despite desperate attempts to find a cure, death rates are still escalating.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Falklands War (1982)",146,0,0,0
On April 2 Argentinean forces invaded the Falkland Islands (Malvinas), overwhelming the 70 British marines stationed there to protect Britain's claim to this outpost. Although US Secretary of State, Alexander Haig, unsuccessfully tried to mediate in the early days, the conflict escalated. This inspired Britain to launch a counter-attack on May 1, sending a task force down to the Falklands which landed on May 21.
After a number of battles at sea and on land between the two sides, the Argentineans surrendered on June 14 after losing 750 lives compared to Britain's 254. In response to their defeat, rebel forces in Argentina removed President Galtieri. The victory was a triumph in Britain for Conservative Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher who had gambled that her forces could win in a battle fought far from home.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"Israel Invades Lebanon (1982)",147,0,0,0
On June 6 Israel launched a full-scale invasion of \JLebanon\j in an operation code-named "Peace of Galilee" aimed at driving the Palestine Liberation Organization's (PLO) bases away from the northern border of Israel. The Israelis sent 90,000 troops into battle, easily overpowering the PLO bases after which they moved on to \JBeirut\j where they encircled PLO fighters including the leader, Yasser Arafat. After the Israelis had more than achieved their objective, both sides agreed on a cease-fire on June 25.
Not long after, when the United Nations confirmed the right of Israel to exist, the PLO leader Yasser Arafat fell into line signing documents confirming for the first time that the PLO now believed the State of Israel had the right to exist. The modern state of Israel was originally established in 1948. The USA, however, continued to deny the right of the PLO to exist as a legitimate body.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
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"IBM PC Introduced (1983)",148,0,0,0
Although mainframe computers were in use for some years, the US computer manufacturing company International Business Machines "IBM" launched the personal computer (PC) in 1983 popularizing the computer as never before. Until that date, ordinary people had limited access to computers, but with the arrival of the user-friendly PC, people were able to use computers on an individual basis.
Personal computer power increases substantially every year. In 1996, the Pentium-powered PC was the main seller, with the newer more powerful Pentium Pro just making its appearance. As a contrast, it is interesting to compare the capabilities of the initial \JIBM\j PC with the corresponding offerings today.
In 1983, the major configuration was an 8088 16-bit \Jmicroprocessor\j, 128,000 bytes of memory, a single 10 million \Jbyte\j hard disk, and one 360,000 \Jbyte\j floppy disk. For the same money in 1996, you can purchase a Pentium 64-bit processor, 16 million bytes of memory (an increase of 125 times), a two thousand million \Jbyte\j hard disk (a 200 times increase), a 650 million \Jbyte\j CD-ROM (not available in 1983) and one 1.2 million \Jbyte\j floppy disk. What will the next ten years bring?
Personal computers are now used in virtually all branches of an organization and they have almost totally replaced the minicomputers of old. In many companies, networks of personal computers have also replaced the mainframe computer. Personal computers have now gained significant inroads into the home as well with countries such as America, \JAustralia\j, England, and \JGermany\j, averaging around one personal computer for every three households.
The new battle in the PC market, especially for organizations, is the potential emergence of the network computer (NC), designed for use in "Intranet capable" corporate and government systems. The network computer is a cut down PC without a hard disk. All software is downloaded from the central network computer, and it is expected that this approach will substantially reduce the support costs within an organization. Home users will still opt for the more powerful PC as these users will need more of their own stand-alone computing power.
It will be interesting to see the result of the NC versus PC battle over the next few years.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Green Politics (1983)",149,0,0,0
The West German Greens led by Petra Kelly won their first seats in the elections for the West German parliament, signaling a new era of environmental politics. Although the Christian Democrats won the election under Chancellor Helmet Kohl, the Greens began to have a significant impact on environmental policy. Green political parties were then founded around the world giving a parliamentary voice to environmental groups like Greenpeace, which had been campaigning for environmental reforms.
Key environmental issues which began to emerge, apart from over-population, included the hole in the ozone layer, global warming, and sea levels rising.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Star Wars (1983)",150,0,0,0
On March 23, despite progress in the Geneva-based USSR/USA disarmament talks, American President Ronald Reagan developed a policy to create a new anti-missile defense system called the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI). Reagan claimed the new defense system would be needed against the Soviet Union because it was "an Evil Empire." The SDI was soon nicknamed "Star Wars." Because of a number of factors, including cost, the SDI was never fully implemented.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Ethiopian Drought (1983)",151,0,0,0
Drought struck \JEthiopia\j affecting millions of its citizens, inspiring the government to call for aid from the rest of the world. With the climate changing through environmental damage, the traditional rains failed to nourish fertile areas, and the bulk of the crops on which the people were dependent failed.
By 1984 the \Jdrought\j had worsened, with the government claiming 600,000 people had died and 8 million more were at risk. With the media coverage alerting the world, millions of dollars were raised through charity organizations to help feed the people of \JEthiopia\j.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Sri Lankan Civil War (1983)",152,0,0,0
In July fighting broke out in Sri Lanka as Tamil separatist rebels, known as the Tamil Tigers, attacked the Singhalese majority, sparking a violent on-going conflict in the capital Colombo. During the conflict, 380 people were killed and thousands were forced to flee, losing their homes and livelihood. President Junius Jayawardene ordered his security troops to clamp down on the Tamils who retreated to the jungle in the north, where they continued to fight for separation well into the 1990s.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"US Invades Grenada (1983)",153,0,0,0
In October the American Government sent 6,000 troops to invade \JGrenada\j and establish civil rule, after leaders of a local "Revolutionary Military Council" (RMC) ousted and killed Prime Minister Maurice Bishop and his cabinet ministers from the moderate New Jewel Movement.
The Americans saw this coup as a threat to the security of the United States, and the invasion "Urgent Fury" was designed to remove the RMC and install a pan-Caribbean council to govern the island until democratic elections could be held. Although the local Grenadan troops put up a fight, the Americans succeeded in their mission.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Aussies Win America's Cup (1983)",154,0,0,0
On September 26 \JAustralia\j won the America's Cup, taking the trophy from the Americans for the first time in 132 years and making yachting history in the process. The Australian yacht \IAustralia II\i with its secret design keel convincingly outsailed the American yacht \ILiberty\i over seven races. Owned by millionaire Australian businessman Alan Bond, and skippered by John Bertrand, the yacht \IAustralia II\i and its crew won international acclaim and ushered in a new era of more competitive yachting.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"War In Beirut (1983)",155,0,0,0
On April 18 the fight for control of the strategic capital of \JBeirut\j reached new heights when a suicide bomb was driven in a van into the American Embassy killing 60 people and wounding 100 others. The bomb was a protest against the American forces which had joined the international peace-keeping force in an attempt to control the city and keep other forces from taking over.
Those fighting in the "war in Beirut" included Israelis, Christians, Lebanese, Druze militiamen, and \JShiites\j. On October 23 more than 300 American and French soldiers were killed in two simultaneous suicide attacks on allied headquarters, bringing the conflict to a head. The soldiers were killed by lorries loaded with explosives driven through the gates of the allied compounds.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Ethiopian Relief (1984)",156,0,0,0
Throughout 1984 the international community collected food and medical services for the victims dying from the Ethiopian \Jdrought\j. With hundreds of thousands dying from the failure of the crops, the government appealed to the rest of the world for help.
Although hundreds of thousands of tons of food were delivered, some of this could not be distributed to the needy because of wars being fought in the north in the Eritrea and Tigre regions, bad roads, and lack of transport. The Ethiopian Government also offended the international community by wasting $250 million on an extravagant 10th anniversary celebration of the overthrow of Haile Selassie and his government.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Colored Vote in South Africa (1984)",157,0,0,0
On August 22, 1984, for the first time in the history of South Africa the colored people were allowed to vote in elections. Although black people were still excluded, the inclusion of the coloreds signaled the start of the end of the "apartheid" system of racial segregation which the whites had imposed since establishing the Government of South Africa.
The South African Government had established a skin-color-based pecking order with white at the top, followed by colored, then black and in some cases with Indian as a separate category. Now it was only a matter of time before the blacks were included in the electoral franchise.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Assassination of Indira Gandhi (1984)",158,0,0,0
On October 31, Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi (1917-84) was assassinated in the gardens of her home by her Sikh bodyguards, sparking a series of anti-Sikh riots throughout India in which more than 1,000 people were killed. Mrs Gandhi was succeeded by her son Rajiv. The Sikhs killed her in retaliation for ordering the storming of their holiest shrine, the Golden Temple at \JAmritsar\j, in order to crush a rebellion of extremists led by Sant Bhindranwale who had occupied the temple to gain independence for the Sikhs.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Bhopal Disaster (1984)",159,0,0,0
On December 3 toxic gas leaked from a Union Carbide \Jpesticide\j factory in the Indian town of Bhopal, killing over 2,000 innocent people and hospitalizing 180,000 others. The poisonous gas, methyl isocyanate (MIC), which leaked from a faulty tank, spread through the shanty town around the factory, choking residents who frothed at the mouth and fell unconscious. Although 5 Union Carbide officials were arrested for criminal negligence, the plant reopened within days, forcing 200,000 residents to flee the area.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Rainbow Warrior Sinks (1985)",160,0,0,0
On July 10 French secret agents sabotaged the Greenpeace environmental patrol ship \IRainbow Warrior\i in New Zealand's Auckland harbor, blowing the ship up with two limpet mines, killing one crewman (the ship's photographer). The \IRainbow Warrior\i was planning to sail into the South Pacific to protest against impending French nuclear tests on Mururoa \JAtoll\j. The New Zealand Government caught, tried, and jailed the French terrorists in New Zealand. The international protest forced French Defense Minister Charles Hernu to resign.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Live Aid Concert (1985)",161,0,0,0
On July 13 Irish musician Bob Geldof organized an international rock concert which raised $70 million in aid of African \Jfamine\j victims. Performed in front of hundreds of thousands in London and Philadelphia simultaneously, and televised globally to 152 countries, the all-day concert was the largest ever intercontinental satellite link-up.
One and a half billion people watched the concert on \Jtelevision\j with hundreds of thousands phoning telethon headquarters to pledge donations. It starred Elton John, Mick Jagger, Paul McCartney, David Bowie, Bob Dylan, Madonna, Joan Baez, Tina Turner, and Phil Collins. Phil Collins actually performed in London then flew on the \JConcorde\j to Philadelphia where he performed again on the same day.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Titanic Found (1985)",162,0,0,0
On September 1 the wreck of the \ITitanic\i was found off the coast of Newfoundland by deepsea divers. The sinking of the \ITitanic\i with 2,224 people on board was history's worst peacetime maritime disaster, with 1,513 lives lost when this White Star liner struck an \Jiceberg\j on her maiden voyage in the North Atlantic. The impact of the accident was compounded because the authorities claimed the 46,329 gross tonnes ship was unsinkable.
Although 700 passengers survived by climbing into lifeboats, there were not enough lifeboats for all those on board. The deepsea divers discovered when they located the sunken wreckage that the ship broke into two pieces and had no chance of staying afloat.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Achille Lauro Hijacked (1985)",163,0,0,0
On October 7 in a surprise attack at sea, Palestinians hijacked the famous Italian cruise ship \IAchille Lauro,\i taking 450 hostages and killing one American passenger. The Egyptian Government eventually forced them to surrender, promising to fly them to \JTunis\j.
American fighter planes intercepted this flight, however, and forced the terrorists to land in \JItaly\j where they were jailed. Although the international community had become used to airliner hijacks, it was unusual for ships to be hijacked and this incident ushered in a new era of global \Jterrorism\j.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Challenger Space Shuttle Disaster (1986)",164,0,0,0
On January 28 the \IChallenger\i space shuttle exploded just after take-off killing all seven astronauts on board, including a civilian Christa McAuliffe. Millions of people watching on location or \Jtelevision\j were shocked to see the explosion right before their eyes.
McAuliffe, a teacher from New Hampshire, had won a place on board as the first ordinary citizen to go into space. The accident, which happened one minute into the mission, was caused by a fault in the twin solid fuel booster rockets. Key executives were dismissed in retaliation by the NASA administration.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Marcos Flees (1986)",165,0,0,0
On February 25 Corazon Aquino defeated Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos in the elections, despite attempts by Marcos to rig them. Marcos was forced to flee Manila because of charges of widespread corruption and ballot rigging in the Philippine elections. The controversial and unpopular Marcos, who had been cheating the system for years, embezzling funds, and amassing a private fortune at the people's expense, was lucky to escape with his life. Marcos was subsequently put on trial and found guilty of corruption.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"US Bombs Libya (1986)",166,0,0,0
On April 15 after months of provocative behavior by Colonel Gaddafi of \JLibya\j, President Reagan ordered the bombing of the Libyan cities of Tripoli and Benghazi. \JLibya\j had been accused of masterminding a range of international terrorist hijack attacks in the air, and further \Jterrorism\j on the ground including a Berlin night-club bombing. On January 8 Reagan had frozen Libyan assets in the US to discipline \JLibya\j, but this had failed to stop the terrorist activities. On March 24 the two sides clashed again over air space. Although the US bombing was criticized by members of the international community, it made an impact on \JLibya\j's terrorist activities.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Chernobyl Nuclear Power Disaster (1986)",167,0,0,0
On April 26 a fire at the nuclear power plant at \JChernobyl\j created radioactive fallout that drifted over much of Europe, creating the worst-ever nuclear power station disaster. Despite the severity of the accident, it was not until May 14 that President Gorbachev revealed the first facts about the disaster at \JChernobyl\j, and then on June 15 the \JChernobyl\j bosses were dismissed. The radioactive fallout contaminated agricultural produce including milk and meat, generating long-term cancer deaths from those most exposed. The accident became a black milestone in the history of nuclear power, serving as a warning for the future.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Olof Palme Assassinated (1986)",168,0,0,0
On February 28 Sweden's Prime Minister Olof Palme (1930-86) was assassinated by an unknown gunman in the country's first assassination. He was shot dead, as he walked with his wife, on the way home from the cinema. Palme, who was Prime Minister from 1969-76 and then again 1982-86, was succeeded by Ingvar Carlsson. The world was used to witnessing assassinations in the US or Middle East, but this was a new development and placed security forces on guard around the world.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Irangate Scandal (1987)",169,0,0,0
In May, hearings began in America into the \JIrangate\j scandal. Despite the US embargo on arms sales to \JIran\j, the American President Ronald Reagan had previously admitted involvement in a secret arms deal with \JIran\j in contravention of the US undertaking not to supply arms.
These also implicated senior government officials including National Security Adviser John Poindexter, and Lt. Col. Oliver North who were both brought before the Congressional hearings and pleaded the Fifth Amendment over the scandal, which the media nicknamed \JIrangate\j. The hearings dragged through 1987 ending on August 3. By 1989, North was found guilty of crimes in the Iran-Contra scandal and was given a suspended three-year prison sentence and a fine of $US150,000.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Nuclear Arms Reductions (1987)",170,0,0,0
On December 8 American President Ronald Reagan met Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev for a three day summit in Washington where they agreed to reduce arms on an unprecedented scale. The two leaders signed a treaty banning all short- and medium-range nuclear weapons in Europe. The arms limitation treaty was seen as the biggest post-war turning point towards world peace by the international community.
\BSoviet Arms Reductions (1988)\b
Mikhail Gorbachev, President of the USSR, continued the Soviet Union's liberalization by destroying medium-range nuclear missiles in keeping with the mutually agreed US and USSR superpower disarmament program. He also announced unilateral troop cuts of 500,000 soldiers, which represented ten per cent of the USSR armed forces.
The USSR subsequently withdrew its troops from the abortive war in \JAfghanistan\j. With the US also dismantling nuclear weapons, the world entered a period of hope, free from the immediate fear of nuclear war caused by superpower rivalry.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"USSR's glasnost (1987)",171,0,0,0
Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the policy of openness in government \I(glasnost)\i in an effort to liberalize and free up daily life in Soviet \JRussia\j. He also introduced the policy of reconstruction \I(perestroika).\i Gorbachev then ordered the release of 140 political prisoners and allowed limited choice in local government elections for the first time. Together these modernizing policies loosened the grip of the communist government and its secret police, and led in time to dissent and the collapse of totalitarian \Jcommunism\j. His policies compared with the de-Stalinization policies of Khrushchev in the 1950s.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Stock Market Crash (1987)",172,0,0,0
On Monday, October 19 the New York stock market share prices fell dramatically in one day-double the amount they had fallen in the Wall Street crash of 1929. Investors, frightened of losing their funds scrambled to sell and 600 million shares changed hands. The impact once again reverberated around the world, affecting the share markets in \JTokyo\j and London where the Financial Times index fell nearly 250 points. Many business careers were ruined and many more investors lost their personal fortunes.
On January 26, a fleet of 11 square-rigged tall ships arrived safely in Sydney, having retraced the original 12,000 mile founding voyage from England to \JAustralia\j to commemorate the 1788 settlement of \JAustralia\j by the British, when 1,350 convicts and naval personnel settled the new continent.
Conceived and led by Australian historian Dr Jonathan King, the re-enactment expedition was history's longest and largest, carrying well over 1,350 passengers from many nations, who sailed from London along the original route. The expedition lost one sailor overboard, Henrik Neilson of Denmark.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Bush Elected US President (1988)",174,0,0,0
On November 11 Republican Party nominee George Bush won the presidential elections when he defeated Democrat nominee Michael Dukakis, gaining 54 per cent of the popular vote. Bush was Reagan's vice president and it was the first time since 1836 a sitting vice president had won the election for president. The voters had elected Bush because in a troubled world they wanted more of the same conservative style of government. He was inaugurated on January 20, 1989.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Satanic Verses Death Threat (1989)",175,0,0,0
On February 14, Iranian Fundamentalist leader Ayatollah Khomeini declared British-based writer Salman Rushdie had sinned against God and must die, following the publication of Rushdie's \IThe Satanic Verses.\i Khomeini, who found the verses sacrilegious, announced a \Ifatwa\i or sentence of death and ordered his followers to kill Rushdie. The British Government responded by protesting against this attack on freedom of speech and vowed to protect the writer, who went into hiding.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Ocean Oil Spill (1989)",176,0,0,0
On March 25 the American tanker \IExxon Valdez\i struck rocks off the Alaskan coast spilling tons of oil into the ocean, creating one of the worst cases of ocean \Jpollution\j in history. It was certainly the worst ocean \Jpollution\j in American waters, as the 937 foot tanker spilled out 10 million gallons of crude oil which polluted 100 miles of coastline in one of the world's most pristine wilderness areas.
The oil caused damage to wildlife that could never be repaired, including seabirds, otters, and seals. The oil spill occurred when the ship hit rocks near Prince William Sound off the coast of \JAlaska\j. The environmental movement used the event to create new standards and the captain and oil company responsible were fined.
On November 24 communist leaders resigned in \JPrague\j and after years of repeated sporadic anti-communist protests, anti-communist forces took over the government in December as part of the breakdown of \Jcommunism\j in Eastern Europe.
The anti-communist government playwright Vaclav Havel (who had been jailed by the communist government in February) became President after communist leader President Husak resigned following widespread opposition by the masses.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Tiananmen Square Massacre (1989)",178,0,0,0
On June 4 the Chinese army crushed a revolt in \JBeijing\j's Tiananmen Square by thousands of pro-democracy students. Communist government leader Deng Xiaoping's army sent in tanks and soldiers who advanced against the rioters and 2,000 protesters are believed to have died. The students who had been demonstrating for weeks, occupied Tiananmen Square itself for seven weeks before the army moved in.
The incident was broadcast internationally by \Jtelevision\j and the Chinese Government was strongly criticized for responding with violence to appeals for human rights.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"San Francisco Earthquake (1989)",179,0,0,0
On October 19 a massive \Jearthquake\j (6.9 on the Richter scale) struck San Francisco-the worst since the one which damaged the city in 1906. The quake killed 80 people, many of whom were driving to work on the Nimitz Freeway and were crushed in their cars on the lower level, when sections of the double-decker concrete roadway above them collapsed. The tragedy confirmed San Francisco as an earthquake-prone area and inspired even greater precautions for the future.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"America Invades Panama (1989)",180,0,0,0
On December 21 American troops invaded Panama officially "to protect American citizens from violence," but unofficially to remove local leader Manuel Noriega from office. Although Noriega was installed by the US in order to supply the Central Intelligence Agency with information, he betrayed the US and so they decided to get rid of him.
After his troops lost the battle against the invading US forces, Noriega went into hiding. Accusing Noriega of drug trafficking as well, US President Bush issued an order for his arrest. He surrendered to the US authorities on January 3, 1990.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Mandela Freed (1990)",181,0,0,0
On February 11, South African President F. W. de Klerk released black African political activist Nelson Mandela from prison where he had been held for 27 years for "treason." The South African Government, which had been practicing \Japartheid\j for decades, also lifted restrictions on a range of leading organizations including the African National Congress (ANC) and granted an amnesty to other political prisoners.
The ANC suspended its struggle against the white South African Government and Mandela (who was then elected deputy president of the ANC) began to negotiate terms with de Klerk for a multi-racial government and society.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Global Warming (1990)",182,0,0,0
On April 17 leading members of the international community held a meeting on global warming. Encouraged by the environmental movement (especially international organizations like Greenpeace), world leaders sat down and examined evidence which demonstrated temperatures on planet Earth were heating up.
The temperature is warming up because radiant energy from the sun is now being increasingly trapped in the atmosphere rather than escaping. This temperature rise is caused by increased burning of fossil fuels and increased destruction of forests which, along with the water vapor and carbon dioxide, absorb the heat creating a blanket effect over the planet forcing the temperature up. Increased heat also melts the polar ice making the sea levels rise.
This increased heat causes changes in climate, shifting rain away from the Equator towards the poles and altering present agricultural patterns. The meeting concluded that temperatures could rise between 1 and 5 degrees by 2050 and recommended nations stop destroying forests, or burning fossil fuels, and reduce population levels-the root cause.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Iraq Invades Kuwait (1990)",183,0,0,0
On August 2 \JIraq\j, under the leadership of Saddam Hussein, invaded \JKuwait\j, starting a war of international significance. Saddam Hussein seized hostages which the Iraqi Government held until December. America, which came to the aid of \JKuwait\j sending troops to Saudi \JArabia\j on August 7, codenamed its operation "Desert Storm."
America and its Allies defeated the Iraqi army in a series of battles, the longest of which ran for 100 hours and succeeded in freeing \JKuwait\j. Although the UN began talks with \JIraq\j on August 31, progress was slow and on November 9 the Americans decided to double their forces in the Gulf. The United Nations imposed sanctions demanding \JIraq\j withdraw by January 15.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Reunification of Germany (1990)",184,0,0,0
On October 2 East and West \JGermany\j were formally reunited, becoming one nation for the first time since the Second World War, when the defeated \JGermany\j was divided by the democratic and communist Allies. The people elected Helmut Kohl as first Chancellor of a reunited \JGermany\j. Following a round of meetings attended by East and West German leaders, along with Soviet, US, British, and French leaders, provisions had been made for "a monetary, economic and social union" between the two countries.
After the wall was demolished, reunification was greeted with wild scenes of jubilation on both sides of the wall.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Cold War Ends (1990)",185,0,0,0
On November 21, major nations involved in the Cold War signed a treaty in Paris declaring this war to be over. The Cold War, which began at the end of the Second World War, was a competition for the hearts and minds of European citizens between the two ideologically opposing allies who had liberated Europe from the Germans-USA and USSR.
This Cold War created an atmosphere of increasing tension, which the international community feared could at any moment spark off a new conflict between the US capitalists and the USSR communists. People around the planet greeted the end of this Cold War with great celebrations.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Gulf War (1991)",186,0,0,0
On January 16 the United States launched "Operation Desert Storm" against the belligerent Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein, whose forces had invaded \JKuwait\j and refused to leave by the UN deadline of January 15. American forces began with an aerial attack and bombed key Iraqi military centers that had been set up in \JKuwait\j and over the border in \JIraq\j, with little resistance.
On February 24 the Allied land offensive then drove Iraqi troops out of \JKuwait\j, again with little resistance and on February 28 a cease-fire was called in the Gulf. America and its Allies won the war, losing 250 lives compared to an Iraqi loss of between 35,000 and 100,000 people.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Apartheid Ends (1991)",187,0,0,0
On February 1, South African leader F. W. de Klerk announced South Africa would be abolishing all \Japartheid\j legislation. This liberal move opened the door further for black majority rule, and recently-released African National Congress Deputy President Nelson Mandela began to gather support. Having already met Zulu leader Chief Mangosuthu Gatsha Buthelezi, head of the rival Zulu-based Inkatha movement, Mandela was gathering support for his inevitable takeover.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Third Gandhi Assassinated (1991)",188,0,0,0
On May 21, Indian Premier Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated in Sriperumpudur, Tamil Nadu, bringing to an end the rule of a family dynasty. He was assassinated by a female Tamil separatist who presented him with a bouquet of flowers which detonated on contact, killing both her and Rajiv.
Rajiv was the son of Indira Gandhi (who had also been assassinated) and grandson of India's first post-independence leader Nehru. Mahatma Gandhi, the great Indian international peace leader and one time head of the Indian National Congress, had also been assassinated in 1948.
On June 12 Boris Yeltsin was elected President of the Russian Federation. This Federation replaced the USSR following talks with the leaders of different states within the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics that wanted independence in the post hard-line communist era that was evolving. The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) had already been disbanded on March 15, 1990. On December 21 the Soviet Union ceased to exist and Gorbachev resigned as President of the former Soviet Union.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Yugoslavian Civil War (1991)",190,0,0,0
On June 25 former Yugoslavian republics \JSlovenia\j and \JCroatia\j declared their independence, starting a war during which the former states broke away and fought with each other for territory. The Serb-dominated Yugoslavian National Army (YNA) and Federal Airforce retaliated by attacking \JSlovenia\j to stop \JSlovenia\j breaking away.
The YNA then attacked \JCroatia\j. On October 2 the Yugoslavian army bombarded \JDubrovnik\j. On November 8 the European Community imposed sanctions on Yugoslavia as the war developed into the biggest European bloodbath since the Second World War.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Russian Communist Revolt (1991)",191,0,0,0
On August 19 the Communist Party hard-liners staged a coup in the Soviet Union forcing Mikhail Gorbachev to resign five days later as General Secretary of the Communist Party. Former vice president Yanayev took control, banning political parties, demonstrations, and imposing strict control over the media. Yanayev called in the troops to protect the parliamentary buildings he had taken over.
The people rebelled, led by the President of the newly-formed Russian Federation, Boris Yeltsin, who called for democracy. The military stopped supporting Yanayev and the hard-line coup collapsed. The former Soviet states then claimed independence and the USSR itself collapsed by December 21.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Former Yugoslavia Breaks Up (1992)",192,0,0,0
As the bloody war escalated in the former Yugoslavia, different states began to emerge as new entities. On January 15 the European Community (EC) recognized the independence of \JSlovenia\j and Croatia-sounding the death knell of the 75 year-old former Yugoslavia. On April 7 the EC recognized the independence of Bosnia-Herzegovina.
As the former states refused to stop fighting, however, the UN on the May 30 imposed wide economic sanctions to try and stop the fighting. On August 26 the UN and EC then persuaded the warring parties to attend peace talks in London, even though the war dragged on.
On October 12 more than 100 traditional sailing vessels, including square-rigged tall ships arrived in the West Indies commemorating the 500th anniversary of the arrival of Christopher Columbus-the first man to sail from Europe to the Americas. The flotilla, increasing in numbers as it progressed, had sailed from the home town of Columbus, \JGenoa\j, \JItaly\j, towards San Salvador where Columbus had landed 500 years earlier.
The fleet then sailed on to New York for the 500th anniversary party providing a parade down the Hudson River of more than 200 sailing craft. The event was covered by the world media which produced a range of films including \IThe Great Columbus Race.\i
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Clinton Elected US President (1992)",194,0,0,0
On November 3 Democrat nominee Bill Clinton won the elections in the US for President, defeating Republican nominee and sitting President George Bush. Clinton, 46, a governor of \JArkansas\j, won 32 states to 18. Bush had gained votes by winning the Gulf War, but had lost more votes by losing the economic battle at home to increase growth, feed and house the increasing number of unemployed.
The younger, good looking, fresh-faced "boy from the south" Bill Clinton claimed to identify with President Kennedy and promised to usher in a new era of traditional people-orientated Democrat-style policies.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Czechoslovakia Breaks Up (1993)",195,0,0,0
On January 1, \JCzechoslovakia\j, which had been ruled by communists since the end of the Second World War, broke up into two states-the Czech Republic and \JSlovakia\j. Czechoslovakian President Vaclav Havel was elected leader of the Czech Republic and Michal Kovac elected leader of \JSlovakia\j. Assets were divided between the two new states which vowed to co-operate in peace and harmony.
It was part of the post-communist East European disintegration and confirmed the end of \Jcommunism\j and monolithic states that failed to reflect ethnic ties.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Superpowers Disarm (1993)",196,0,0,0
On January 3 the USA and USSR signed the second stage of a Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty 1993, which confirmed the superpowers disarmament intentions. The treaty was signed by President Bush for the US and President Boris Yeltsin for the Russian Federation. They agreed to eliminate land-based multiple warhead missiles and destroy two-thirds of their long-range nuclear missiles. The Treaty was agreed after only six months of talks.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"World Trade Center Bombed (1993)",197,0,0,0
In February four Arab immigrants bombed New York's World Trade Center killing six people and injuring 1,000. The bomb, which sent a shockwave of fear through Manhatten, exploded in an underground garage causing millions of dollars worth of damage. Arab leader Mohammad A. Salameh was convicted on March 4, 1994, along with Mahmud Abouhalima, Nidal A. Ayyad, and Ahmad M.Ajaj; other Arab suspects, including a radical muslim cleric, Sheikh Omar Abdel-Rahman, evaded trial.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"All South Africans to Vote (1993)",198,0,0,0
On February 12 the South African Government and the African National Congress agreed that all people in South Africa could vote in the next election scheduled for April 1994. They also agreed the party with the largest number of votes (undoubtedly one of the black parties) would elect the President. The hot tip for this position was Nelson Mandela, who had earned his leadership by years of political campaigning and a long prison sentence during which his status grew.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Ozone Hole Grows (1993)",199,0,0,0
Although European Community members had agreed to cut back on the production of \Jchlorofluorocarbons\j (CFCs) in December, 1992, the international community was dismayed on March 5 when the World Meteorological Organization reported ozone levels had fallen 20 per cent over Northern Europe and Canada.
As the ozone layer acts like an atmospheric shield and is needed to protect humans from the ultraviolet radiation of the sun, world and industry leaders agreed to step up efforts to ban CFCs, promising to stop by January, 1995. The world's largest producer du Pont (du Pont Nemours & Co) agreed to stop by the end of 1994.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"War in Rwanda (1993)",200,0,0,0
On March 20 Rwandan rebels fighting for the Tutsi ethnic group agreed to merge into the one organization in their fight against the majority Hutu ethnic group which they claimed was attacking and torturing them. Government troops and rebel forces from the Tutsi side, thus agreed that the Rwandan Patriotic Front and rival government officials should work together as one army opposing their much larger Hutu enemy.
This gave the Tutsis a greater chance against the Hutus, who had by then forced 1 million Tutsis from their homes in a bloody campaign to take over \JRwanda\j and rid \JRwanda\j of Tutsis.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"China Elects Steady Leader (1993)",201,0,0,0
On March 31, China elected Jiang Zemin, 67, Secretary of the Communist Party of China, to the additional post of President. This gave the moderate Jiang Zemin more power than any leader since Mao Zedong.
The real control over China remained in the hands of the old revolutionary leader Deng Xiaoping who had survived from the days of Mao and had great status in China-even though he had not appeared in public for some time and actually held no official positions. Observers saw the move as a step in the right direction for the troubled giant still suffering from years of brutal dictatorship by Mao.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Waco Tragedy (1993)",202,0,0,0
On April 19 a religious \Jcult\j set fire to a building in Waco, \JTexas\j killing themselves rather than face punishment at the hands of the US authorities, who had surrounded the building for 51 days and begun to attack the \Jcult\j headquarters.
Cult leader and self-styled \Jmessiah\j David Koresh, 33, of the Branch Davidians, died along with 74 other \Jcult\j followers including 17 children. It was the worst American mass religious \Jcult\j suicide since 900 members of a \Jcult\j poisoned themselves in Jonestown in 1979. It confirmed fears about the gullibility of ordinary American citizens prone to believe and follow unstable leaders.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Cambodian King Returns (1993)",203,0,0,0
After his party won the May elections, Prince Norodom Sihanouk was recognized as head of the coalition Cambodian Government on June 3. Sihanouk, who became King of \JCambodia\j in 1941, had achieved miracles returning to power after a long period in exile.
On September 24 he assumed the throne again for the first time since he was deposed in the 1970s. He then vowed to fight the deadly communist force Khmer Rouge, who had killed millions under the brutal Pol Pot, and which refused to stop fighting in the outlying areas for control of \JCambodia\j.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Israel and PLO Sign Washington Accord (1993)",204,0,0,0
On September 13 President Clinton managed to get Israel's leader, Itzhak Rabin, and the Chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization, Yasser Arafat, to shake hands in Washington on an agreement designed to end decades of violent confrontation between Israel and the PLO. This agreement followed an earlier "Declaration of Principles" concerning Palestinian self-government in the occupied Gaza Strip and West Bank areas. Rabin said, "enough of blood and tears, enough," and Arafat said, "our two people have waited long for this historic hope."
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Soviet Forces Shell Parliament (1993)",205,0,0,0
On October 4 Boris Yeltsin's troops assaulted the parliament and suppressed a revolt from rebel political "deputies" and their supporters. The hard-line old-style communist deputies, led by parliamentary speaker Ruslan Khasbulatov, and vice president Aleksandr Rutskoy, had occupied the parliamentary building with allies to stop Yeltsin reforming \JRussia\j. The deputies also voted to impeach Yeltsin as president. Yeltsin responded by declaring a state of emergency and storming the building with his tanks which fired into the windows. It was a battle described as the most violent fight in Moscow since the Russian Revolution in 1917; at least 142 people were killed.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Maastricht Treaty in Place (1993)",206,0,0,0
On November 1 the Treaty on European Union took effect after years of negotiations. Europe now had a binding document signed by all 12 member states of the European Community. The treaty was an updated version of the 1957 Treaty of \JRome\j, which initially forged a union between the European nations and granted them "an ever-closer union" with special rights and obligations. Members included UK, \JFrance\j, \JGermany\j, Denmark, \JBelgium\j, \JGreece\j, Ireland, \JItaly\j, \JSpain\j, Netherlands, \JPortugal\j, and Luxembourg.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Pablo Escobar Dies in Colombia Shoot-out (1993)",207,0,0,0
On December 2, Colombian soldiers killed the world's worst drug runner-Pablo Escobar-in a shoot-out from his place of hiding. Escobar had masterminded a large international drug production and distribution system worth billions. He supplied 80 per cent of the US \Jcocaine\j market and earned $20 billion each year from his known drug sales.
A rich and powerful criminal, police had taken more than a year to trace him following his escape from a low-security prison, and finally tracking him down through phone-tapping. The world breathed a sigh of relief.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Los Angeles Earthquake (1994)",208,0,0,0
On February 17 one of the worst East Coast earthquakes struck Los Angeles, killing 61 people and causing $8.6 billion in damages. The quake, which registered up to 6.8 on the Richter scale, knocked over freeways full of cars and also skyscrapers, and started fires in many regions.
Striking at dawn, the quake caught people unawares, sending a wave of terror around the LA community normally used to reading about quakes in San Francisco to the north. A state of emergency was declared as transport, electricity, and gas services to millions of homes and offices had been cut. President Clinton pledged the $8.6 billion relief following reports that the quake was one of the worst natural disasters in American history.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Hebron Massacre (1994)",209,0,0,0
On February 25 an Israeli armed with an automatic weapon murdered between 30 and 40 \JArabs\j worshiping in a mosque in \JHebron\j. The Israeli gunman, Baruch Goldstein, an American-born medical doctor and fanatical right-wing extremist, also wounded 150 other Palestinians when he opened fire on the group worshiping at the Cave of the Patriarchs mosque.
The massacre was the worst act of violence in the West Bank since Israel's occupation from 1967. When they realized what had happened, surviving worshipers turned on the gunman and beat him to death on the spot. Although Israel's Prime Minister Itzhak Rabin described it as a "loathsome criminal act of murder," a series of anti-Jewish riots then rocked Israel.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"European Union Expands (1994)",210,0,0,0
The European Community reached a new level of status in early 1994 when it reached agreement on terms of admission for three new European states-Austria, Sweden, and \JFinland\j. \JNorway\j, which had also applied, was put on hold until fishing disputes in the North Sea were settled. The three new members confirmed the success of the European Union, which since its birth in 1957, planned to unite the whole of Europe into one common unit with a free trade zone, common currency, and common foreign policy.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Anglican Church Ordains Women (1994)",211,0,0,0
On March 12 the Anglican Church admitted 32 women into the church as priests, breaking a 450-year-old tradition and invoking the wrath of Pope John Paul II. The ordination followed a 1975 ruling by the General Synod of the Anglican Church that there was no theological basis for the exclusion of women from the priesthood.
The women were ordained in \JBristol\j Cathedral by Bishop Barry Rogerson. In response, 700 Anglican clergymen threatened to leave the Anglican Church for the Roman Catholic Church. The Pope claimed it was a "profound obstacle to every hope of reunion between the Catholic and Anglican churches."
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"NATO Defeats Serbs (1994)",212,0,0,0
On April 10 the forces of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) attacked and crushed the main Serbian offensive in the war in the former Yugoslavia. The Serbs were attacking a Muslim enclave, Gorazde, a center for helpless refugees, week after week causing havoc. More than 65,000 refugees had fled to this area after the Serbs had driven them from their homes, because the UN had created it as a "safe zone."
The UN, serving the world as a peace-keeping force, stepped in and ordered them to stop. The Serbs ignored the UN, claiming the UN was taking sides, so the \JNATO\j forces ordered US \Jaircraft\j to bomb the Serbian positions, which they did, wiping them out. It was a victory for the international community.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Mandela Elected in South Africa (1994)",213,0,0,0
On April 26 all the people of all races in South Africa voted in elections for the first time, white (13 per cent), black (75 per cent), colored (8 per cent), and Indian (3 per cent). They elected black leader Nelson Mandela as President and black politicians as government leaders, thus abolishing years of white domination and an \Japartheid\j system which the whites had formalized in 1948.
The black majority party, the African National Congress, won 252 seats in the National Assembly Parliament; the white party, National Party, 82; the Zulu Party 43; and 4 other minor parties shared 23 seats. Mandela appointed the white party leader who had helped reform the system, F. W. de Klerk, his deputy. Black history had been made and it was the end of one of the world's last colonial empires.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Rwandan War Escalates (1994)",214,0,0,0
On April 29 the United Nations called upon warring parties in the Rwandan War to stop killing each other. UN Secretary General Boutros Boutros-Ghali called upon the Security Council to take "forceful action," and UN troops began to play a greater peace-keeping role because the August 1993 peace treaty organized by the UN had failed.
The minority Tutsi (10 per cent of the population) had risen up against the majority Hutu (90 per cent) who had begun an extermination campaign against them. Although the Hutu had killed thousands of Tutsi with little resistance, the Tutsi gathered a force and attacked the Hutu capital Kigali. Despite UN troops and soldiers from USA, \JFrance\j and \JBelgium\j, the killings continued, with hundreds of thousands being hacked to death by traditional machetes, clubs, spears, guns, and bows and arrows.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Tunnel Links France and UK (1994)",215,0,0,0
On May 6 Britain's Queen Elizabeth II and French President Franτois Mitterrand formally opened the tunnel linking Britain and \JFrance\j. Begun in 1987, the tunnel was 50 kilometers (or 31 miles) long, and carried trains which transported trucks, cars, and other goods on a Eurostar rail system. It cost $15 billion-double the original estimate, and was controversial from the start.
The leaders, who launched the new link in \JCalais\j, announced it would open for private cars to be loaded onto the trains in June, 1995. It was an historic milestone, as for the first time the water barrier between Britain and Europe that had saved Britain from invasion over the centuries was "bridged."
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"O.J. Simpson Accused of Murder (1994)",216,0,0,0
On June 17 black American football star and actor O. J. Simpson who was featured in the Hall of Fame was formally charged with murdering his ex-wife Nicole Simpson and her friend, Ronald Goldman. The victims were killed on 12 June at Nicole's house. After police investigated the murder they summoned Simpson-a prime suspect-to turn himself in. Simpson then escaped, became a fugitive from justice, and evaded police arrest, until a friend of his phoned police on a mobile phone to say Simpson had a gun at his head and was forcing him to drive along a Los Angeles freeway.
Police and media followed the car back to Simpson's house where he gave himself up. Simpson's trial, that went on for months, was one of America's most controversial cases, attracting unprecedented media activity until his acquittal late 1995.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Rwandan War Worsens (1994)",217,0,0,0
On July 4 Rwandan Patriotic Front soldiers captured the national capital of Kigali, creating a new stage of the civil war between the Hutu majority and Tutsi rebels (who comprised 10 to 15 per cent of the population). The bloody battles, often fought with brutal machetes, had by then claimed 500,000 people's lives and forced 2 million refugees to flee across the border into Zaire.
The United Nations Commission for Refugees claimed it was "a disaster on a scale not witnessed in modern times" as hundreds of thousands died through lack of water, food, and medical supplies.
On October 5 Swiss police found the bodies of 48 \Jcult\j followers of the Order of the Solar Temple who had committed suicide in two small villages because they believed the world would end now that humans had polluted the environment. The bodies of five other \Jcult\j members were found in Quebec where they had also killed themselves. \JBelgium\j \Jcult\j founder Luc Jouret inspired the suicide with his theory of an impending apocalypse.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Russia Invades Chechnya (1994)",219,0,0,0
On December 11 \JRussia\j's President Boris Yeltsin ordered his army to invade the rebel province \JChechnya\j in the south, which had caused increasing trouble since Chechen leader Dzhokhar Dudayev declared their independence in 1991. Although the invading Russian army became bogged down, the troops finally got into position and stormed the Chechen capital, Grozny, on December 31, killing many rebel soldiers and civilians, and wrecking the city.
Despite victory claims and an official halt to fighting, Russian soldiers continued to burn and then attack Chechen villages from helicopters. Rebels fought back taking the Russian town of Budennovsk to the north, holding 120 hostages in the local \Jhospital\j who were killed in the ensuing battles in a war that dragged on into the decade.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Muslims Hijack French Plane (1994)",220,0,0,0
On December 24 Islamic Fundamentalists hijacked a French Airbus A-300 on the runway at \JAlgiers\j, capital of \JAlgeria\j. The hijackers killed three passengers over the Christmas period before being allowed to fly to \JMarseille\j, \JFrance\j. On arrival French paramilitary commandos stormed the plane, killed four gunmen and released the hostages. The Armed Islamic Group had planned to blow up the plane over Paris in protest of French support for \JAlgeria\j.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"AIDS Claims One Million Lives (1995)",221,0,0,0
On January 3 the World Health Organization (WHO) announced the number of AIDS cases reported to its Geneva headquarters had reached one million. Claiming that many cases went unreported and undiagnosed, WHO officials also said they believed four million people suffered from the disease worldwide.
Africa suffered most with 70 per cent of cases, followed by USA 9 per cent, Western Hemisphere 9 per cent, Asia 6 per cent, Europe 4 per cent, and the rest of the world 2 per cent. According to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, AIDS had become the leading cause of death in the USA for both men and women 25-40 years old.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Kobe Earthquake (1995)",222,0,0,0
On January 17 an \Jearthquake\j struck the port of Kobe, \JJapan\j's sixth largest city. As a result, approximately 6,000 people were killed, 30,000 injured, and 300,000 left homeless. The \Jearthquake\j caused $US150 billion worth of damage-one fifth of the 1994 annual budget. Raised highways were smashed down, blocks of apartments collapsed, and streets filled with rubble, making rescue attempts difficult and causing widespread criticism of the government's emergency services.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Tokyo Subway Attack (1995)",223,0,0,0
On March 20 the Japanese religious sect, Aum Shinrikyo, released the deadly toxic nerve gas, sarin, in the \JTokyo\j subway, killing twelve people and injuring 5,500 others. Sect leader Shoko Asahara was caught on May 16, hiding in the Aum compound in Kamikuishiki. Inspired by \JShiva\j, Hindu god of destruction (and regeneration), the sect had mounted a coordinated operation on three different underground train lines at peak hour.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Oklahoma Building Bombed (1995)",224,0,0,0
On April 19 anti-government protester Timothy McVeigh detonated a car bomb destroying the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma, USA, killing 169 innocent people. The bomb, which brought much of the building down, trapped 200 office workers and also children in a day-care center on the second floor.
Army veteran McVeigh, who was caught by police driving away from the scene of the crime in a vehicle with no license plates, was subsequently tried and convicted, along with accomplices Terry Nichols and Michael Fortier.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Rwandan War Flares Up (1995)",225,0,0,0
On April 22 Tutsi-dominated Rwandan Patriotic Front soldiers wielding machetes, hacked, trampled, or shot thousands of Hutu tribesmen, women, and children in a refugee camp at Kibeho, as part of their campaign to take over \JRwanda\j.
The Tutsi wanted the Hutu to return to their villages and work for them but the Hutu fled into refugee camps in neighboring countries, hoping to escape the violent Tutsi who they had earlier tried to obliterate because they were only a 10 per cent minority group in \JRwanda\j. More than one million people were killed in the war, creating the worst case of mass slaughter in African history and one of the worst in the world.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"V-E Day Commemorated (1995)",226,0,0,0
On May 6 old soldiers and political leaders gathered in Europe to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the Victory in Europe (VE) Day 1945 campaign which spearheaded the Allied victory against Hitler's Nazi \JGermany\j. The celebrations began with a three-day ceremony in London, attended by Queen Elizabeth and the Queen Mother. Further festivities were held in Paris, Berlin, and Moscow.
The events included fly pasts, parades, exhibitions, displays, and parties enjoyed by a peace-loving generation who gave thanks for the sacrifices of those who died in the war.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Ebola Virus Strikes Africa (1995)",227,0,0,0
On May 30 the World Health Organization announced 153 deaths in Zaire from the Ebola virus. Seven of those who died were Italian nuns who contracted the deadly virus while treating patients suffering from the infection.
The little known disease-possibly caused by insects, rodents, or other animals-struck Kikwit, initially creating fears that the disease would spread through the 600,000 population, many of whom showed the symptoms of vomiting, diarrhea, fever, and hemorrhaging. Scientists began studying the disease immediately, searching for evidence of the cause and seeking a cure.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Nuclear Treaty Extended (1995)",228,0,0,0
On June 11 the leading nations of the world voted to extend the original Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty which had been signed in 1970 for a 25-year period. The decision was made at the United Nations Headquarters in New York after three weeks debate by representatives of 174 nations.
Great Britain, USA, and \JRussia\j, originally signing the treaty in 1968, led the peace initiative. \JFrance\j and China originally signed in 1992. Delegates hoped all five big powers would abide by the treaty in the future, which called for the destruction of nuclear weapons and prohibited non-nuclear nations from developing them.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"French Nuclear Tests (1995)",229,0,0,0
On September 5, the French Government detonated the first of a series of nuclear tests in the Pacific Ocean on the island of Mururoa \JAtoll\j, drawing global condemnation. As most superpowers and leading nations of the world had agreed not to test nuclear weapons and also to dismantle nuclear arms, the French test was seen as a backward step for the world.
Tahitian anti-nuclear protesters went on a 15-hour rampage, burning down the main airport terminal building, and 19 other government buildings at an estimated cost of $40 million. Despite the protests, the French detonated a total of six bombs through to January 27, 1996, demonstrating their disregard for the rest of the world.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"PLO-Israel Sign Accord (1995)",230,0,0,0
On September 28, the US persuaded Israel and the PLO to sign a landmark accord at the White House which greatly advanced the Middle East peace cause. Israel agreed to withdraw from the West Bank occupied Palestinian territory and hand over control to Palestinian National Authority. The accord also paved the way for a legislative authority in future elections that would give Palestinians increased representation.
Although greeted by peace-lovers as a major breakthrough, hard-line Israelis opposed the decision to give land, authority, and administrative rights to Palestinians and began a fightback campaign that led to the assassination one month later of Israeli Prime Minister Itzhak Rabin.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"O.J. Simpson Acquitted (1995)",231,0,0,0
On October 3 in a trial that received unprecedented media publicity, champion American footballer and Hall of Fame sports hero O. J. Simpson was acquitted by a Los Angeles Superior Court jury after being tried for murdering his ex-wife and her male friend at their home. His wife Nicole and friend Ronald Goldman had been killed on June 12, 1995.
It was the first case in which a prominent black man considered guilty by large numbers of the media and the public was tried and found not guilty. Race relations played a key role and because the jury was mainly black, critics believed it was a case of racial sympathy. His acquittal sent a wave of astonishment around the western world used to seeing blacks charged with murder and sentenced. Observers saw it as a turning point in black-white relations and a shift of power towards the black minority in the US.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"UN Turns Fifty (1995)",232,0,0,0
On October 24 the United Nations held a three day celebration at the New York Headquarters commemorating their 50th anniversary. The celebration gathered the largest number of world leaders in history. Leaders signed a document confirming that they supported the aims and aspirations of the United Nations initially agreed on at the foundation on October 24, 1945. Delegates representing 178 nations, along with 23 observers, spoke in support of the UN and called for increased efforts to ban nuclear testing and the arms trade.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Assassination of Itzhak Rabin (1995)",233,0,0,0
On November 4 a young Jewish extremist assassinated Israeli Prime Minister, Itzhak Rabin, after he delivered a speech at a peace rally in Tel Aviv. The ultranationalist extremist, Yigal Amir, was protesting against Rabin's peace policy which included Israeli withdrawal from territory claimed by Palestinians. He claimed he was acting on orders from God. The assassination caught the world by surprise as it was the first time a Jewish person had assassinated a Jewish leader.
Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat, who visited Israel soon after, gave his personal condolences to Rabin's widow Leah, who in turn blamed the right-wing Israeli Likud party, led by Benjamin Netanyahu, for inciting the attack. Yigal Amir was subsequently convicted for the crime, along with associates, and sentenced to life imprisonment.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Clinton Visits Bosnia (1996)",234,0,0,0
On January 14 US President Bill Clinton visited war-torn Bosnia to inspect the war-zone of former Yugoslavia, which had suffered greatly during the years of conflict since the nation broke up following the death of leader Marshal Tito. Officials had earlier discovered a mass grave in Bosnia. On January 11 they had estimated as many as 8,000 bodies could be buried in the one area. Clinton pledged to do all he could to bring peace to the area and instructed US war crimes investigators to visit the mass grave site.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"French Nuclear Tests End (1996)",235,0,0,0
On February 23 French President Jacques Chirac announced \JFrance\j would stop testing nuclear bombs in the Pacific Ocean at the island of Mururoa \JAtoll\j. This followed a series of tests carried out from September 5, 1995, during which a number of nuclear bombs were detonated, contaminating the atmosphere and ocean. The largest test on January 28 was at Fangataufa \JAtoll\j.
Leaders, ordinary citizens, environmentalists, and protesters around the world condemned the French Government and put pressure on them to stop the testing that was damaging the planet for the rest of the human race.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"China Threatens Taiwan (1996)",236,0,0,0
On March 5 China announced that it would test missiles near \JTaiwan\j ports. This inspired the Taiwanese to prepare their battleships for possible conflict. After China began testing these missiles in the area of \JTaiwan\j, the international community feared war between the two enemies.
Taiwan asked the US for assistance against the threat of a Chinese invasion and they replied by sending battleships into the area, inspiring the Chinese to claim they would not attack \JTaiwan\j. China then stopped testing missiles in the area and 20,000 Taiwanese protested against China over the incident.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Dunblane Massacre (1996)",237,0,0,0
On March 13 a single gunman entered a school in Dunblane, Scotland, and slaughtered sixteen children between the ages of four and five and their teacher, with an automatic gun, before then shooting himself. Police investigators discovered the gunman, Thomas Hamilton, had a history of child abuse and was mentally unbalanced. On March 17 the British Government asked the nation to stop work and hold a minute's silence for the teacher and children that were killed.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Chechen War Worsens (1996)",238,0,0,0
The war in \JChechnya\j worsened on March 6 when the leader of the Chechen guerillas was killed, inspiring Chechen forces to attack Russian soldiers, killing hundreds of soldiers and citizens as they took control of part of Grozny. The Russians fought back to regain the city, but critics suggested that Russian President Boris Yeltsin should dismiss his Defense Minister for mismanaging the war, as the fighting dragged on claiming the lives of over 500 during March. Although Yeltsin ordered a cease-fire, rebel soldiers ignored his plea and continued to fight until peace talks were held later that year. Despite these talks, the situtation continued and the war dragged on through 1996.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Britain's 'Mad Cow Disease' (1996)",239,0,0,0
On March 25 two new cases of "mad cow disease" were reported in England, where ten people had already died from the same complaint, forcing the government to admit publicly that some British cows carried a disease fatal to humans. The medical authorities identified Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE)-called mad cow disease by the media and admitted there was a strong link to the human equivalent, Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease.
This disease was known to affect consumers' brain cells causing motor degeneration manifested through \Jdementia\j, staggering, jerking, personality change, and coma. Scientists say up to a million could be infected. Europe banned the import of British beef on March 26. The British Government ordered the slaughter of millions of \Jcattle\j suspected of carrying the disease.
Beef production was halted for some time. Consumers stopped eating so much British beef, other nations banned imports, affected cows were destroyed, and thousands of people lost their jobs before the beef industry could start again with fresh herds.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Unabomber Caught (1996)",240,0,0,0
On April 3 US police finally caught the "Unabomber," who for 18 years had been planting bombs around the United States and on \Jaircraft\j that had claimed a number of lives. The Unabomber, Theodore Kaczynksi, a former math professor, was arrested in his home in Lincoln, Montana.
Leaping into the limelight on September 19, 1995 when his "manifesto," calling for political change, was published in the \IWashington Post\i and \INew York Times,\i the Unabomber had worried authorities since his first bombs went off at Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois on May 26, 1978. He targeted universities and intellectuals.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Israelis Attack UN Base (1996)",241,0,0,0
On April 18 the Israeli army shelled a United Nations base in southern \JLebanon\j, killing up to 100 people. The attack, which took the normally immune base by surprise, outraged the world community. The Israelis claimed, however, they had made a mistake and had been aiming for hostile enemy bases in \JLebanon\j but missed. United Nations Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali condemned the Israeli attack as did leaders around the world. The Israelis promised to be more careful with their target selection in future.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Port Arthur Massacre (1996)",242,0,0,0
On April 28 Tasmanian gunman, Martin Bryant, committed the world's worst peace-time civilian massacre by a single gunman, when he went on a shooting rampage with an automatic gun, killing 35 innocent people in the historic Australian tourist resort, Port Arthur, in the island state of \JTasmania\j. Ironically Port Arthur had been the convict prison for some of the worst convicts in the British penal colony of \JAustralia\j during the mid- to late-nineteenth century.
The Australian Liberal Party Government subsequently banned automatic weapons. Bryant was apprehended and imprisoned pending trial for murder charges.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"TWA Plane Explodes (1996)",243,0,0,0
On July 17 a Trans World Airliner exploded in mid-air shortly after take off from New York, killing all 230 people on board. The plane, en route to Paris, crashed into the sea off Long Island. The subsequent investigation revealed that terrorists had planted explosives on the plane. Further investigations failed to prove that terrorists were the cause of the disaster and investigations still continue.
It was one of the worst \Javiation\j accidents in modern history. US President Clinton subsequently promised to improve safety conditions and security.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Atlanta Olympics Bombing (1996)",244,0,0,0
The Centennial Olympic Games, which opened on July 19, were disrupted by a pipe bomb blast at a recreational venue in Centennial Olympic Park on July 27. Two people were killed and 100 were injured. Despite criticism of poor organization, security had been tight at the stadium since it had been opened on May 18 by Vice President Al Gore. The bomb was allegedly planted by a uniformed security guard working at the site, but \JFBI\j investigators failed to find solid evidence to arrest him.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Life on Mars (1996)",245,0,0,0
The American space agency, NASA, announced on August 7 that they had discovered life forms on the planet Mars. NASA had examined a \Jmeteorite\j which had fallen to earth some years earlier and confirmed that it contained evidence of primitive life forms that had existed in the past on "the red planet." Humans had suspected that there was life on Mars for some time and the \Jmeteorite\j confirmed that life on earth was not the only living thing in the solar system.
\IWritten by Jonathan King\i
#
"Israel Withdraws From Hebron (1997)",246,0,0,0
On January 1, Israel and Palestine confirmed they would both sign an historic agreement on the withdrawal of Israeli troops from \JHebron\j in the West Bank. However, both sides were divided on the issue: Palestinians in the West Bank town of \JHebron\j had been celebrating the forthcoming withdrawal of Israeli troops since November and members of Israeli Prime Minister Mr Netanyahu's cabinet had threatened to withdraw their support in protest against the plan to remove the troops from \JHebron\j.
On January 15, President Bill Clinton congratulated Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat on their signing of the \JHebron\j peace deal. Clinton also thanked King Hussein of Jordan for his much-needed help in securing the agreement.
The historical \JHebron\j deal signed by Benjamin Netanyahu and Yasser Arafat continued to cause rifts within the Israeli Government, with one minister, Benjamin Begin, resigning. Up to 60,000 Palestinians turned out to greet Palestinian Yasser Arafat on his arrival in \JHebron\j -- his first visit there for over 30 years.
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"Yachtsmen Rescued In Southern Ocean (1997)",247,0,0,0
On January 9, Tony Bullimore, the stricken British yachtsman, was rescued 2,600 km off the coast of Western \JAustralia\j by the Australian Defence Force, who also saved Thierry Dubois, a French yachtsman nearby. The yacht Bullimore was sailing in, \IExide Challenger,\i in the Vendee Globe around-the-world race, tipped over on January 4 when the light-weight keel broke.
In a miracle survival defying all odds, Bullimore kept calm and sheltered inside his yacht in 'the doghouse' from 4 to 9 January awaiting rescue. He used his emergency beacons, including the life-saving EPIRB (Electronic Positioning International Radio Beacon) to tell rescuers his position. He kept warm by climbing into an immersion suit and survived by eating biscuits, chocolate, and other rations.
After calmly keeping himself alive while he waited in his unusual location, he eventually emerged and swam to the surface when he heard human voices and tapping on the upturned keel. He was rescued by the Royal Australian Naval \Jfrigate\j, \IAdelaide,\i and pulled from the water by naval officer, Pete Wicker. Despite his ordeal, Bullimore was safe and well, apart from some frostbite in his fingers and losing the top part of his thumb when a hatch slammed shut.
He received a huge welcome when the \IAdelaide\i arrived in Fremantle, Western \JAustralia\j, some days later where he thanked the government and people of \JAustralia\j for saving his life, in a marked contrast to the French yachtsman, Thierry Dubois, who was far less grateful. As the rescue mission cost the government more than $1 million, Bullimore's thanks were well received.
The popular Bullimore then underwent surgery in Western \JAustralia\j to treat frostbite on his fingers, spending two hours in a decompression chamber to treat poor blood circulation to his feet. Rescued French yachtsman Thierry Dubois then flew to Adelaide, South \JAustralia\j, to address the Australian Defence Forces involved in the sailing rescues.
On January 12, Diana, Princess of Wales, visited \JAngola\j on behalf of the Red Cross to help raise support for a global ban on the use of landmines. Over ten million landmines are believed to be scattered throughout \JAngola\j, killing and injuring thousands of people each year. Diana then visited landmine victims in Bosnia, hoping to increase awareness of the landmine issue leading up to the global conference in \JNorway\j, scheduled for February, where many of the world's government representatives met to discuss banning landmines.
US President Bill Clinton also announced his decision to call for a global ban on landmines at an impending United Nations conference. America, along with Britain, said they wanted 'smart' mines, which self-destruct after a period of time, to be excluded from the ban while China and \JRussia\j opposed the global landmine ban. The United States subsequently agreed to join a Canadian bid to forge a global treaty banning landmines by the end of 1997.
South Korea endorsed the bid in principle, but argued that its own landmines must be kept in place until the threat of a North Korean invasion is extinguished.
On February 4, former US sports star O.J. Simpson was found guilty of murdering his ex-wife and her friend Ronald Goldman in a civil case which followed the criminal case in which he had been acquitted. Simpson was ordered to pay $US33.5 million in damages, although his agents reported that he was worth only $US500,000, and not the figure of $US8 million released previously.
As the jury in the civil case had decreed he should pay the $US33.5 million in punitive damages, the judge ordered Simpson to hand over some of his personal items to help pay for the compensation settlement to the murdered victims' families. Officials then confiscated items belonging to Simpson as ordered by a judge, so these could be sold to help pay for the $US33.5 million settlement.
Although his lawyers appealed for a new trial, this request was denied as the legal system judged that the damages of $US33.5 million awarded to the estate of his ex-wife and her friend Ron Goldman's family were fair.
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"China's Leader Dies (1997)",250,0,0,0
On February 20, China's paramount leader Deng Xiaoping died at the age of 92. He was the last link to the revolutionary Chinese leader Mao Zedong, having trained with Mao and served under his leadership till Mao died in 1976. After Deng there were no more revolutionaries left in the government which was increasingly made up of younger bureaucrats who had come up through the ranks.
Deng, although frail, had maintained control and had been working right up to his death, despite serious illness. On the eve of Chinese New Year, he had even received visits from President Jiang Zemin and Premier Li Peng. His death signaled a new post-revolutionary era for China.
World leaders immediately sent their condolences to Deng's family, paying tribute to the leader. A memorial service was held in \JBeijing\j's Great Hall of the People and according to Deng's wishes, the funeral was comparatively modest and without grandeur.
Although 10,000 members of China's top political establishment attended the memorial service at the Great Hall of the People in \JBeijing\j, the Chinese authorities controlled the event tightly. The government restricted the number of mourners and displays of affection, also forbidding the family of Deng Xiaoping to release a letter on Deng's death, as it differed from the official version.
The government also restricted the number of foreign journalists allowed to enter China to cover the funeral. After a six-day mourning period, Deng Xiaoping was cremated at the Babaoshan revolutionary cemetery in \JBeijing\j. Thousands of people then gathered in the village in the southwestern province of Sichuan, which was the birthplace of Deng, to pay their final respects to the paramount leader.
Following the memorial service, Jiang Zemin, the Chinese President, vowed to continue to reform policies and to strengthen ties with the USA, refusing however to be pressurized by the USA over human rights issues.
#
"Sheep Cloning Sparks Fears (1997)",251,0,0,0
On March 2, Pope John Paul II issued a statement condemning any experiments which attempted to clone humans. This followed successful experiments by British scientists, who discovered a method to clone a lamb, dubbed "Dolly", from an adult sheep, and who claimed that human \Jcloning\j would be possible within a couple of years.
The Pope was also concerned about Belgian claims that a local boy had been cloned four years earlier, although this claim was firmly denied by the head of the laboratory where the alleged \Jcloning\j took place. A Chinese scientist claimed that China has been conducting \Jcloning\j experiments on animals since 1993 although authorities in China, worried by these claims, also demanded a ban on human \Jcloning\j.
The World Health Organization added its disapproval of human \Jcloning\j, but admitted other \Jcloning\j experiments could be useful in the field of medicine. Meanwhile the Scottish scientist, Ian Wilmut, who discovered the method of \Jcloning\j an adult sheep, has also condemned human \Jcloning\j. The Edinburgh-based scientists who helped clone "Dolly", announced however, the creation of five new sheep containing human genetic material.
An expert on animal \Jcloning\j from the University of Missouri, Randall Prather, advised the world not to worry; he applauded this technological step in terms of its future practical applications. He indicated that the large amounts of proteins produced by the animals could be used to treat cystic fibrosis and hemophilia in humans.
#
"Political Crisis In Albania (1997)",252,0,0,0
On March 3, a state of emergency was called in \JAlbania\j after widespread violent rioting disrupted the country as thousands of people protested against the \JAlbanian\j government, which they believed was at fault for causing the collapse of pyramid investment schemes. Government troops continued to clash with rebels provoking increased rebellion by the people.
All media coverage of the unrest was then stopped by the government. As the situation worsened, the United Nations agreed to send forces to \JAlbania\j to oversee the distribution of aid to the needy to counter the worsening unrest in the country.
Despite opposition throughout \JAlbania\j, President Sali Berisha rejected any offers of assistance by Western mediators. He met instead\B \bwith opposition parties to formulate a plan to end the civil war by calling a 48-hour cease-fire, during which the rebels were asked to give up their weapons. However, rebels in southern \JAlbania\j rejected President Sali Berisha's demands for them to lay down their arms and demonstrators throughout \JAlbania\j refused to accept a 48-hour government cease-fire.
Rebels then increased their control over towns in the south of the country and seized the largest military camp in southern \JAlbania\j, forcing President Sali Berisha to hold an election within two months. Conditions in \JAlbania\j continued to deteriorate as anarchy and turmoil reigned, forcing foreign countries to evacuate their diplomats as looters attacked the capital, Tirana. President Berisha's family fled to \JItaly\j.
Italy then declared a state of emergency to help cope with more than 10,000 refugees from \JAlbania\j and sent 5,000 soldiers to \JAlbania\j to oversee the distribution of aid to refugees, where they formed part of an international force, taking up their posts in the port of Vlore to protect aid shipments. \JAlbania\j's political parties finally concurred that the general election should be held; the leaders of \JAlbania\j's three major political parties then signed a pact that bound them to holding these free and democratic elections.
On June 30, \JAlbania\j's ruling Democratic Party conceded defeat in parliamentary elections when they were beaten by the country's Socialist Alliance. Outgoing \JAlbanian\j President, Sali Berisha, resigned and some of his key aides abandoned the country. Fatos Nano, the new President, announced that the incoming Socialist Government would adopt legislation preventing Democratic Party officials fleeing \JAlbania\j, and his government would ban all corruption in future.
#
"Peru Siege Draws To A Close (1997)",253,0,0,0
On March 26,\B \bPeru's President Alberto Fujimori claimed that the long-running hostage crisis in Lima was coming to an end. He announced that the hostages who had been held inside the Japanese Ambassador's residence since late 1996 would be freed while the Tupac Amaru rebels would receive a multi-million dollar payoff and asylum in \JCuba\j.
Japan also announced it would consider giving economic aid to \JCuba\j if \JCuba\j agreed to accept the rebels. The following month the Japanese ambassador to \JPeru\j, Ambassador Morihisa Aoki, returned home to \JJapan\j after his harrowing hostage ordeal. Although not as violent as some, the siege, having started in late 1996 was one of the longest running sieges in history.
#
"Trial Of Oklahoma City Bomber (1997)",254,0,0,0
On April 1, the long-running trial of the alleged Oklahoma City bomber, Timothy McVeigh, opened in \JDenver\j, USA, confronted with the major task of choosing a jury which had not been influenced by media coverage. Once in place, the jury was told by one of the first witnesses that McVeigh informed her of his intentions to plant a bomb in the Oklahoma City Federal building. McVeigh's sister also then testified against him claiming that he used an alias and transported over 455kg of explosives.
Later witnesses also alleged the Oklahoma bomber was set on starting a "general uprising" in America and that McVeigh's fingerprints were found on several crucial pieces of evidence. By the conclusion of the prosecution's case against McVeigh, the prosecutors claimed investigators had found residue from explosives used in the bombing on McVeigh's clothes, despite the testimony of a British forensic scientist that supported a theory that the bomber actually died in the blast.
The scientist claimed that an unidentified leg found in the rubble could have been the bomber's. Although the jury had failed to reach a verdict by the end of May, after further deliberations McVeigh was found guilty on June 11 and convicted of bombing a federal building and killing 168 people. McVeigh was formally sentenced to death by lethal injection.
#
"Indonesian Election (1997)",255,0,0,0
On May 28, the Golkar Party won the national elections in \JIndonesia\j after the worst pre-election violence in decades. Approximately 15 people were shot dead overnight prior to polling day. Having criticized the Golkar Party's tactics throughout the campaign, the Muslim opposition and the Independent Committee for Election Monitoring (KIPP) accused the Golkar group of cheating.
Many people also claimed that the ruling Golkar Party tampered with election results, and so followed the lead of democracy leader Megawati Sukarnoputri and refused to vote. Despite this controversy the ruling Golkar Party claimed its biggest victory in three decades and celebrated accordingly.
#
"Labour Wins British Election (1997)",256,0,0,0
On May 1, the British Labour Party won an overwhelming victory in the UK general elections, as widely predicted. Tired of many years of inaction, the voters swung to the younger, new-look Labour leader, Tony Blair, who had been promoting 'New Labour' for Britain since winning the leadership position some years earlier. Blair had promised to provide more jobs, rectify traditional class inequalities, and repair the environment.
The Conservative Party, which campaigned on maintaining the status quo, suffered the worst results in over 165 years spelling the end of 18 unbroken years in power, which began in 1979 with the victory of Margaret Thatcher, 'The Iron Lady'. Five key Conservative ministers lost their seats and in Scotland, the Conservative Party lost all its seats. The new Labour government in the UK then began to usher in a more modern era of political representation, as the government was now composed of more working class, female, black, and Asian MPs than ever before.
#
"Iran Hit By Earthquake (1997)",257,0,0,0
On May 10, an estimated 4,000 people died after an \Jearthquake\j, measuring 7.1 on the Richter scale, hit Qaen, north east of Birjand in \JIran\j. A further 6,000 people were also reported to have been injured in the disaster. The government of \JIran\j asked for international assistance from the world community inspiring countries from all around the world to give aid to the victims of the \Jearthquake\j.
But even as rescue workers and government officials tended the wounded and cleared away the rubble, \JIran\j was hit by another follow up \Jearthquake\j, this time measuring 4.8 on the Richter scale. Although it caused less damage, it underlined the vulnerability of the country and likelihood of future earthquakes.
#
"Space Station Repaired In Orbit (1997)",258,0,0,0
On May 15, the space shuttle Atlantis docked safely with the Russian space station, Mir, as part of a US/Russian space expedition. Atlantis delivered \Jastronaut\j Dr Michael Foale who replaced Jerry Linenger, the American \Jastronaut\j who had been aboard Mir for four months. After Foale, who planned to remain on Mir for four and a half months, transferred to Mir, the space shuttle Atlantis returned from its mission to the Kennedy Space Center in \JFlorida\j.
On June 25, however, a subsequent docking exercise went wrong when a cargo craft collided with Mir. Although Russian officials said that the American and two Russians aboard Mir were in no danger, the spacemen were instructed to conserve oxygen because the station had suffered significant damage when hit by the cargo craft.
Faced with the prospect of abandoning the station and returning to Earth in an escape craft, the astronauts set about restoring power. Reporting their progress, the crew then appeared in a \Jtelevision\j link with Earth, where they showed some of the damage that was caused when the cargo craft collided with their home.
Although NASA officials confirmed that the situation was improving, the future of Mir depended on the crew who still had to carry out repair work. This was more difficult than first thought, however, and the space station was plunged into darkness when a vital computer cable was mistakenly unplugged. This caused a further drop in power, compelling the crew to retreat to the Soyuz space capsule to communicate with Earth, until they restored power to the main space station. These problems then inspired space officials to send a new crew to the stricken vessel to help with repairs.
On August 7, the two-man Russian relief team reached the Mir space station but were forced to dock manually when automatic systems developed a fault. The relief workers immediately tackled the most urgent task: repairing the vessel's oxygen system. On their return, the two original cosmonauts from the Mir space station hit back at critics who had blamed them for the mission's spate of calamities, laying the blame on Earth-bound sources, namely \JRussia\j's poor economy.
Their replacements back in space fared little better as a computer failure, triggered during the docking operation, sent the space station spinning chaotically in orbit, losing its orientation toward the sun. This emergency forced the crew to shut down all energy-consuming systems, leaving only vital life-support systems operational while they worked to re-charge the batteries.
Once they restarted the Mir space station computer system the craft stopped spinning through space and Mission Control confirmed that the crew could reinstate the craft's stable alignment with the sun, enabling the solar panels to provide power once again.
The United States, meanwhile, conducted three separate inquiries into safety aboard Mir before sending relief \Jastronaut\j, David Wolf, on the shuttle Atlantis to replace Foale. But despite problems created by a leaking spacesuit, the Russian-US crew aboard space station Mir completed the risky task of reconnecting all power cables in the station's damaged Spektr module. This had been operating on 60 per cent power since the June 25 collision, finally enabling life for the crew in space to return to normal.
#
"Media Hunt Princess Of Wales (1997)",259,0,0,0
On August 26, Diana, Princess of Wales, condemned the British press as "ferocious". In an interview with the French newspaper, \ILe Monde,\i she revealed how difficult her life was as the main target for world photographers. The Princess claimed that everything good she did or said for her humanitarian causes was twisted by the media and presented in negative terms.
Acclaimed as the most photographed woman in the world, the Princess said she was now constantly hunted by the media who followed her around the world allowing her very little private life.
The Princess also labeled the previous Conservative government of Britain "hopeless", and declared that only her sons kept her from leaving Britain where the media were worse than any other part of the world. She had nothing but praise however, for the new Labour government's determined stance on the campaign to ban anti-personnel landmines, saying she regards her own work in this and other humanitarian areas as her future destiny.
#
"Islamic Victory In Afghanistan (1997)",260,0,0,0
On May 24, after an offensive into the north of the country, the Islamic Taliban militia claimed to control all of \JAfghanistan\j. The leader of opposition forces, General Dostum, fled to Turkey. \JPakistan\j immediately became the first country to recognize the Taliban as the official government of \JAfghanistan\j.
Critics attacked the new Islamic state claiming that under the rule of the Islamic Taliban militia, \JAfghanistan\j was producing nearly 40 per cent of the world's heroin. International aid workers also attacked the Taliban regime as evil, not only because of their drug trade, but also for their discrimination against women who were forbidden to work or attend higher education institutions.
#
"Peace Between Old Rivals (1997)",261,0,0,0
On May 26, US President, Bill Clinton, and Russian President, Boris Yeltsin, signed a pact in Paris which stated that \JRussia\j and \JNATO\j were no longer adversaries and that they would work together to create a secure, stable Europe. The pact also gave \JRussia\j the right to be included in \JNATO\j discussions in future. After signing the pact, President Yeltsin announced that \JRussia\j would no longer target \JNATO\j states with nuclear missiles.
This officially ended more than fifty years of cold war hostility between the communist Soviet Union and the democratic United States of America; both countries having fought an ideological battle since the end of the Second World War. Although this battle at its worst threatened another world war, the eventual collapse of the communist Soviet empire in 1989 from inside, softened attitudes on both sides that led to the May 26 peace agreement. It was nevertheless one of the biggest milestones in world peace this century.
#
"China Takes Over Hong Kong (1997)",262,0,0,0
On June 30 at midnight, Hong Kong was returned to Chinese rule after 156 years under British control. The territory will be referred to as the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, and will be ruled by China under the "one country, two systems" policy proposed by the late communist leader Deng Xiaoping.
At least 500 Chinese soldiers added a conspicuous flavor to the hand-over, as Britain had given in to \JBeijing\j's demands to allow People's Liberation Army (PLA) troops to enter Hong Kong before the official hand-over at midnight. Accordingly, five hundred PLA troops joined the two hundred troops already in Hong Kong making it clear who was taking over.
Another 4,000 were also effectively in attendance as Hong Kong's future chief executive, Tung Chee-hwa, announced that 4,000 PLA troops would enter Hong Kong as it returned to Chinese rule at midnight .
After Hong Kong's elected legislature concluded its final session, it was replaced by an unelected legislature, appointed by \JBeijing\j. The new Hong Kong Government was then sworn in at a colorful ceremony. Speaking after the ceremony, the Chinese President, Jiang Zemin, welcomed Hong Kong's return to the "motherland", urging all patriots to strive for the return of Macau, the resolution of "the \JTaiwan\j question", and the peaceful reunification of the Chinese people in accordance with the "one country, two systems" principle.
Britain and the United States, who were earlier represented by officials at the swearing-in ceremony for Hong Kong's Provisional Legislative Council, also attended the hand-over, despite leaders of both countries warning they would boycott the ceremony. This warning was given to show their disapproval of China's decision to remove the elected legislature and replace it with an appointed one after the hand-over.
Hong Kong's new Chief Executive, Tung Chee-hwa, announced reforms to improve education, help the elderly, address housing shortages, and curb property speculation. Mr Tung maintained that economic vitality and growth will be Hong Kong's greatest defenses against threats posed by high \Jinflation\j, social problems, and employment dislocation.
Martin Lee, leader of Hong Kong's Democratic Party, called for democracy and announced that campaigning for the promised elections in May next year would begin immediately. United States and Britain also called for China to maintain Hong Kong's freedom. Britain's Foreign Secretary, Robin Cook, warned that Britain would consider referring any Chinese breach of the Joint Declaration on Hong Kong to the United Nations.
Mr Cook rejected accusations of British intervention, insisting that while Britain cannot turn its back on Hong Kong, a working relationship with China was also very important.
This followed months of political negotiating, during which the outgoing Governor of Hong Kong, Chris Patten, urged his proposed successor, Tung Chee-hwa, not to accept new legislation that would abandon civil rights in Hong Kong. Hong Kong's bill of rights and two ordinances were subsequently reworked, however, and in effect Hong Kong's civil liberties were no longer guaranteed.
Although Tung Chee-hwa had rejected claims that he would restrict demonstrations and political groups once Hong Kong came under Chinese rule, thousands of people protested against his proposals to place restrictions on marches and political groups.
These restrictive measures were confirmed by Hong Kong's new Provisional Legislative Council, appointed by \JBeijing\j to run Hong Kong, which approved legislation to restrict demonstrations, public protests, and foreign financial support of political parties. Donald Tsang, Hong Kong's Finance Secretary, named a committee to advise on the management and investment of official funds transferred from the former British colonial government, a boost in funds which will make Hong Kong the world's fourth or fifth biggest holder of foreign exchange.
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"Unmanned Mars Mission Succeeds (1997)",263,0,0,0
On July 9, US Scientists reported early results from the successful unmanned Mars Pathfinder mission. The scientists had sent the Pathfinder along with a Sojourner rover on wheels, which was launched from the Pathfinder, to explore the surface. They estimated that a photographed and analyzed rock on Mars nicknamed "Barnacle Bill" was probably one third \Jquartz\j in composition, a finding which suggests that Mars bears more similarities to Earth than the Moon does.
An analysis also revealed that the rock's "chemical fingerprints" are identical to 12 meteorites found on Earth which are believed to have originated on Mars billions of years ago.
On July 20, after a two-day communications blackout with the Pathfinder mission, the Sojourner rover took samples of a large white Martian rock that scientists have dubbed Scooby Doo. By August 4, the Pathfinder and its Sojourner rover were back in action after a 24-hour battery recharging procedure which, according to mission commander, Carl Steiner, worked perfectly. The mission was voted one of the most successful in the history of space exploration and inspired NASA to forecast men on Mars by 2020.
#
"Pol Pot 'Show Trial' (1997)",264,0,0,0
On July 25, American journalist, Nate Thayer, claimed to have found the notoriously elusive Khmer Rouge leader, Pol Pot, in northern \JCambodia\j, but refused to reveal details until his story was published in the Hong-Kong based \IFar Eastern Economic Review.\i
Adding weight to Thayer's claim, the clandestine Khmer Rouge radio announced that Pol Pot was convicted of \Jtreason\j at a recent trial and sentenced to life imprisonment. Video footage of Pol Pot's trial in the northern Cambodian Khmer Rouge stronghold of Anlong Veng was then broadcast on global \Jtelevision\j networks featuring Pol Pot looking frail but well.
Thayer, who attended the trial, claimed it was not "a hoax" and that Pol Pot was indeed "finished". Cambodian coup leader, Hun Sen, on the other hand, scoffed at the show trial of the shadowy Khmer Rouge leader, calling it a "political game", and insisting Pol Pot was still controlling guerrilla forces in the country's north. The \IFar Eastern Economic Review\i claimed Thayer was the first Westerner in 18 years to sight notorious Khmer Rouge leader, Pol Pot.
Khmer Rouge General, Im Nguon, also claimed the guerrilla movement had broken with Pol Pot, while reiterating its allegiance to ousted co-Prime Minister, Prince Norodom Ranariddh. As the instigator of Pol Pot's show trial, Im Nguon now claims to be the movement's military chief and deputy political leader, but concedes that Ta Mok, otherwise known as "the butcher", effectively remains in control of the rebel forces.
Cambodian leader, Hun Sen, meanwhile threatened to launch a military attack to capture Pol Pot if the Khmer Rouge refused to surrender the former guerrilla leader to face an international court. Hun Sen said he would also appeal to the Thai Government to close the border north of the Khmer Rouge stronghold of Anlong Veng.
Meanwhile, some 2,000 civilian refugees entered the eastern Thai province of Sa Kaew, fleeing renewed fighting north of the Cambodian border town of Poipet, one of the last strongholds of the country's royalist forces.
#
"Australian Ski Tragedy (1997)",265,0,0,0
On July 30, at least 18 people were buried beneath hundreds of tons of rubble when a landslide demolished two ski lodges at Thredbo in the Australian state of New South Wales. Most of those trapped were employees of the Thredbo Village Resort. The only survivor was Australian ski instructor, Stuart Diver, who was rescued after surviving over 60 hours buried beneath the rubble of the ski lodges engulfed by the landslide.
On August 6, after an exhausting week-long effort by rescue workers in Thredbo, the last body was retrieved from the rubble of the two ski lodges. Eighteen people were confirmed to have died in the disaster, and plans were announced to turn the area into a park with a memorial to the victims.
#
"Princess Of Wales Killed In Car Accident (1997)",266,0,0,0
On August 31, Diana, Princess of Wales, 36, was killed in a car accident in Paris. Her boyfriend Dodi Al Fayed, 42, and the driver Henri Paul, 41, also died in the crash while bodyguard Trevor Rees-Jones, 29, survived.
French authorities confirmed the driver was drunk with an alcohol reading of 0.175, that he was trying to escape the media paparazzi pursuing the car, and that nobody was wearing a seatbelt apart from the bodyguard.
Although Princess Diana was rushed to a nearby \Jhospital\j for immediate attention, she died soon after from serious internal wounds. Despite closing a wound to the left ventricle, and prolonged external and internal cardiac massage, surgeons at the PitiΘ SaltpiΦtre \JHospital\j were unable to re-establish circulation and Princess Diana died at 4 am on August 31. Princess Diana's body was then escorted back to Britain by her former husband, Prince Charles. She is survived by her two children, Prince William, 15, and Prince Harry, 12.
Thousands of grieving Britons began laying flowers and cards outside Buckingham Palace as well as Kensington Palace, the London home of the Princess of Wales, from the morning of 1 September and holding candle-light vigils well into the night. The rest of the world began mourning Princess Diana's untimely passing on an unprecedented scale, with tributes pouring in from friends and acquaintances, charity workers, heads of state, and prominent figures from all areas and avenues of life.
Dodi Al Fayed, 42-year-old son of Egyptian-born billionaire, Mohamed Al Fayed, was buried less than 24 hours after he was killed, in accordance with Muslim law. The Princess and Dodi Al Fayed had been constant companions over the past month, and earlier that evening the couple had dined together at the Ritz Hotel, which is owned by the Al Fayed family.
In a subsequent official report, the French Interior Minister, Jean-Pierre Chevenement, confirmed the driver had a blood alcohol reading over the limit and had lost control of the vehicle, which was traveling at high speed through a tunnel near the Alma Bridge, while being pursued by paparazzi photographers on motorcycles. After the accident, Paris police detained seven photographers for questioning, and seized a motor-scooter and two motorcycles, one of which was badly damaged.
#
"Algerian Massacres Continue (1997)",267,0,0,0
On August 31, the Secretary-General of the United Nations, Kofi Annan, condemned the continuing bloody massacres in \JAlgeria\j where Islamic Fundamentalists are alleged to have killed at least 230 people. Mr Annan called for international intervention in what has formerly been regarded as an internal problem, saying the world cannot continue to ignore the scope of the violence in \JAlgeria\j. The Islamic Fundamentalists were trying to unseat the government because it was not running \JAlgeria\j according to Islamic law.
On September 5,\B \bin a savage three-hour onslaught, about 50 attackers armed with knives and hatchets massacred at least 87 people and injured at least 100 others in a village near \JAlgiers\j. The victims were mostly women. French newspapers reported that Algerian security forces have located and destroyed the main hide-out of an elite force of the Armed Islamic Group (GIA) about 70 kilometers southwest of \JAlgiers\j. The security operation killed 70 of the 100 members of the underground GIA force, which is alleged to be responsible for most of the massacres in the area.
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"Mother Teresa Dies (1997)",268,0,0,0
On September 5,\B \b Mother Teresa, founding leader of the Missionaries of Charity, died in \JCalcutta\j after a long illness, aged 87. She had been hospitalized on November 22, 1996, after experiencing heart failure. Although she initially asked to be allowed to die, she then agreed to doctors conducting an angiogram test and subsequent major heart surgery, after which her condition stabilized.
She was then released from \Jhospital\j three weeks after suffering the heart attack. Her condition deteriorated, however, as old age, and hard work caught up with her.
#
"Cambodian Crisis (1997)",269,0,0,0
On September 1,\B \bas sporadic shelling continued around \JCambodia\j's contested northwestern border town of O'Smach, King Norodom Sihanouk prayed for peace at a two-hour traditional Buddhist ceremony held at the royal chapel near his residence in Siem Reap. The King's previous calls for a cease-fire were ignored by the Hun Sen Government, which insisted that royalist forces entrenched in O'Smach must either surrender or fight until they are defeated.
The Cambodian government reiterated that fighting in the country's northwest would only cease when royalist forces surrendered. In a statement signed by co-Prime Ministers, Hun Sen and Ung Huot, the Government offered amnesty to all opposition soldiers and officials, with the exception of former First Prime Minister, Prince Norodom Ranariddh, and two of his top military men, General Nhiek Bun Chhay and General Serey Kosal
#
"North Korean Tidal Wave (1997)",270,0,0,0
On September 1, Red Cross officials reported that the tidal wave which smashed dikes and flooded fields in North Korea the previous month had destroyed an estimated 700,000 tonnes of corn, exacerbating the starving nation's food crisis. It was the worst tidal wave in the nation's history and one of the worst on record.
The tidal wave, reported to be more than eight meters high, carried \Jseaweed\j and debris as far inland as 10 kilometers, and was caused by Typhoon Winnie, which lashed eastern China at the same time. In large areas of northern China, emergency steps also had to be taken to minimize crop losses due to one of the worst droughts in decades.
On September 2, officials announced funeral plans for Diana, Princess of Wales. Buckingham Palace confirmed that her funeral, to be held at London's historic Westminster Abbey on Saturday September 6, would be a public service, but not a state occasion. Sporting events would be postponed, and banks and shops would close.
As the world continued to mourn the passing of Diana, Princess of Wales, thousands of people queued for hours to sign books of condolences at St. James Palace in London, where the Princess's body lay. For only the second Saturday this century, renowned Knightsbridge department store, Harrods, announced it would close its doors to the public, and be left in darkness throughout the weekend, with flags flying at half mast. Harrods is owned by Mohamed Al Fayed, whose son Dodi Al Fayed was killed in the Paris car crash with the Princess.
The Paris prosecutor's office meanwhile disclosed that a post-mortem examination on the driver of the Mercedes-Benz that crashed at high speed, revealed the driver's blood alcohol level to be more than three times the legal limit.
The driver, Henri Paul, who was deputy security chief at the Al Fayed family's Ritz Hotel where the couple had dined that evening, was apparently a last-minute substitute for Mr Fayed's regular chauffeur, who was deployed to divert a crowd of waiting photographers. Meanwhile, the seven photographers detained by police were not released for days, and the sole survivor of the crash, bodyguard Trevor Rees-Jones, remained in \Jhospital\j suffering head and lung injuries, still unfit to be interviewed by authorities.
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"Progress On Landmines (1997)",272,0,0,0
On September 2, an international conference seeking a global ban on landmines\B \bopened in Oslo, with delegates observing a one-minute tribute of silence to the late Princess of Wales. Norwegian Foreign Minister, Bjoern Tore Godal, vowed to spare no efforts to achieve the goal for which Diana had strenuously campaigned during the last months of her life -- to produce a text for a global treaty banning landmines.
The United States proposed an open-ended arrangement which would allow the continued use of landmines in the Korean peninsula's demilitarized zone separating North and South. Canadian Foreign Minister, Lloyd Axworthy, one of the leaders in formulating the draft treaty, declared that Canada would destroy its remaining anti-personnel mines before the scheduled treaty signing in early December and had already destroyed two-thirds of its stockpile last year.
After days of debate, a draft treaty banning the use, production, sale, and storing of landmines was released for review by governments of the countries participating in the Oslo conference. The draft was challenged by the United States, however, which says it will be unable to sign the treaty in its current form even though it has failed to win support for the exemption of the Korean peninsula, as well as three anti-tank weapons with anti-personnel devices.
Despite this opposition to the draft, on September 19, close to 100 countries endorsed the draft treaty to ban anti-personnel landmines.
The text of the treaty prohibited the use, production, and development of landmines, and required a country to destroy its stockpiles, and remove all landmines it has laid. It is the first international treaty to ban a widely used weapon system since the end of World War I, and was to be signed by participating countries in the Canadian capital, \JOttawa\j, in December.
Although United States President, Bill Clinton, decided not to endorse the draft of the global treaty, he has now ordered the Pentagon to develop alternatives that would make US landmines obsolete by 2006.
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"Algerian Crisis Worsens (1997)",273,0,0,0
On 1 September, the Algerian Foreign Ministry accused United Nations Secretary-General, Kofi Annan, of interfering in \JAlgeria\j's internal affairs. The accusation came in response to Mr Annan's remarks that the world could no longer ignore terrorist atrocities such as the recent bloody massacre at Sidi Rais, near \JAlgiers\j, which reportedly killed some 200 people.
In a warning to those believed responsible for the carnage, the Algerian Interior Ministry announced the house arrest of Islamic leader, Abassi Madani, who was released from prison just six weeks earlier. Despite these warnings, however, the massacres continued and in the village of Beni-Slimane, about 40 miles south of the Algerian capital of \JAlgiers\j, an armed group killed a further 53 civilians then mutilated and burnt the bodies.
This bloody massacre followed two days of clashes between Algerian security forces and armed Islamic militants, in which 19 militants are reported to have died, as part of the continuing civil war between the government and Islamic Fundamentalists.
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"Declaration Of Obligations (1997)",274,0,0,0
On September 2, at a meeting in \JSingapore\j, the InterAction Council, a 29-member group of elder world statesmen, completed a draft of a 19-point Universal Declaration of Human Obligations designed to complement the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, urging the United Nations and individual governments to adopt the document.
The original Declaration of Human Rights was created in 1945 by world leaders who formed the United Nations after the Second World War. The InterAction Council was chaired by former Australian prime minister, Malcolm Fraser, and its members included former German chancellor, Helmut Schmidt, and former United States president, Jimmy Carter.
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"Asian Fires Cause Pollution (1997)",275,0,0,0
On September 3, \JIndonesia\j's Environment Minister, Sarwono Kusumaatmadja, accused logging and plantation companies of starting forest fires to clear land on the islands of \JBorneo\j and \JSumatra\j. The minister said at least 100,000 hectares of forest had been destroyed, and smoke from the fires had polluted the skies, forcing some airports to close.
The smoke also caused respiratory problems for 20 million people. On September 9, in a bid to reduce dangerous levels of smoke \Jpollution\j across wide areas of Southeast Asia, \JIndonesia\j's President Soeharto ordered a ban on all land clearing fires on \JSumatra\j and \JKalimantan\j. In the meantime, \JMalaysia\j planned to continue cloud-seeding activities in the hope that further rain would clear the pall of smog choking Kuala Lumpur.
On September 17, \JIndonesia\j's Environment Ministry warned that evacuations must begin immediately from the island of \JSumatra\j, where choking \Jpollution\j from uncontrolled forest fires had exceeded hazardous levels, reducing visibility to almost zero, and shrouding much of Southeast Asia in a blanket of smog. \JMalaysia\j, meanwhile, stood ready to evacuate Kuala Lumpur if the air \Jpollution\j index reached the emergency level of 500.
By the end of the month, the polluted skies had also caused plane crashes and shipping collisions before the weather changed and the smog began to clear.
Meanwhile forest fires continued to threaten the Inca citadel of Machu Picchu in the Peruvian \JAndes\j. The area was sealed off to tourists, hundreds of villagers were evacuated, and helicopters doused the mountainsides with water in a determined bid to keep the fires from reaching the World Heritage site. Fortunately heavy rain fell putting out the fires forestalling further damage.
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"Mid East Peace Talks (1997)",276,0,0,0
On September 12, US Secretary of State, Madeleine Albright, left for a peace mission to the Middle East, vowing to focus on Israel's security, as well as the need to revive Israeli-Palestinian peace talks. On the first day of her quest for peace, Albright held three hours of talks with Israeli Prime Minister, Benjamin Netanyahu, endorsing Israel's demands for a crackdown on terrorist \Jinfrastructure\j, but insisting that the Palestinians must have a peace payoff once a sustained clampdown on militants is assured.
During a televised speech in Israel, Albright argued that a freeze on Jewish settlement in occupied land would create a better climate for achieving a lasting Israeli-Palestinian peace agreement. Israel openly refuted Albright's argument, likening a freeze on settlement expansion to a freeze on life.
Albright, who\B \baimed at bringing peace talks "back from the abyss", claimed the Palestinians also had a case. The Palestinians had earlier voiced their doubts about her ability to make much headway in a single visit, blaming damage inflicted on the peace process by the stringent measures of Israeli Prime Minister, Benjamin Netanyahu, and the Jewish settlement expansion in \JJerusalem\j.
Israel, on the other hand, continued to rule out a freeze in settlement building, and said Albright's trip would only be productive if she can effect a change in the Palestinian Authority's attitude towards the security issue.
The peace process was hampered, however, when three suicide bombers struck a crowded pedestrian mall in the heart of Jewish West \JJerusalem\j, killing themselves, four others, and injuring a further 192. The attack occurred only a short stroll from the market where 17 people were killed in a suicide bombing five weeks earlier.
Once again, the Islamic movement Hamas claimed responsibility, and demanded that Israel release all its militants or face more attacks. In the United States, President Clinton called on Palestinian President, Yasser Arafat, to co-operate with Israel to create a secure environment in the region, adding that the perpetrators of these attacks aimed to kill both innocent people and the peace process itself.
Israeli commandos also made the situation worse when they landed by \Jhelicopter\j to the south of the Lebanese port city of Sidon, engaging in heavy clashes with Lebanese army troops and Muslim guerrillas. Twelve Israelis were killed and four wounded in the clashes. One Hezbollah fighter and three Amal guerrillas were also wounded, along with two Lebanese soldiers injured by Israeli \Jhelicopter\j rocket fire. The United States quickly called for maximum restraint by all parties, stressing the extreme fragility of the Middle East situation at the moment.
In the wake of the latest suicide bombing in \JJerusalem\j, Israeli Prime Minister, Benjamin Netanyahu, said Israel would not hand over any more land to the Palestinians until President Yasser Arafat cracks down on Muslim militants. An Arafat spokesman later condemned Israel's decision as "an official declaration of destroying the peace process." But in the first crackdown since last week's triple suicide bombing of a \JJerusalem\j shopping mall, Palestinian security forces arrested 35 suspected Muslim militants in the West Bank. Meanwhile, Israel put security forces on high alert.
As a result of the violence that erupted in the region, however, Washington's expectations for progress on Middle East peace remained low. In return for recent Palestinian moves to tackle terrorism,\B \bIsrael announced plans to release half of the Palestinian tax revenue it has withheld since the \JJerusalem\j suicide bombing by Hamas extremists in July. From Saudi \JArabia\j, meanwhile, US Secretary of State, Madeleine Albright, on her way back to the US from the Middle East, appealed to Arab countries to deny financial aid to Hamas and other radical Islamic groups.
Albright won praise from Jordan's King Hussein for her hard-hitting statements denouncing guerrilla attacks on Israel and Israel's settlement expansion. At a meeting in \JCairo\j, however, the Arab League condemned Israel's settlement program and called on the Jewish state to accept the principle of land for peace, a principle endorsed by Albright, in her efforts to restart deadlocked Middle East peace talks.
Meanwhile speculation about the declining health of Palestinian President, Yasser Arafat, intensified after news emerged that the 68-year-old leader collapsed during a heated meeting with Arab foreign ministers in \JCairo\j.
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"Space Station Functions Again (1997)",277,0,0,0
On September 4, Deputy Director of the Russian\B \bSpace Agency, Boris Ostroumov, announced that activities on the ill-fated Mir space station will be shut down when the new Alpha international space station begins operating in early 1999. Meanwhile, a commission investigating Mir's June collision with a cargo craft concluded that recently returned cosmonauts, Vasily Tsibliyev and Alexander Lazutkin, were to blame for the mishap.
Mir commander, Anatoly Solovyov, and NASA \Jastronaut\j, Michael Foale, engaged in a six-hour spacewalk to repair damage to the station caused by the June collision with a supply ship. Although the two men successfully repositioned a solar panel, they were unable to locate a puncture in the Spektr module.
On September 8, Russian Mission Control reported that the crew of the Mir space station had repaired the main on-board computer following a failure earlier in the day which cut energy supplies aboard the craft. Mission Control added that the computer had yet to be restarted.
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"Athens Wins Olympic Games (1997)",278,0,0,0
On September 4, a jubilant \JAthens\j became the host city for the 2004 Olympic Games after defeating \JRome\j 66-41 in the fourth round of voting by the International Olympic Committee. The other short-listed cities seeking to stage the event were Stockholm, Cape Town, and Buenos Aires.
Meanwhile in a solemn ceremony at the Olympic village, Munich marked the 25th anniversary of the massacre of Israeli athletes by Palestinian guerrillas at the 1972 Olympic Games.
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"Hundreds Die In Ferry Disaster (1997)",279,0,0,0
On September 8, as many as 400 people drowned when a packed ferry capsized off \JHaiti\j. United Nations personnel from the \JHaiti\j peace-keeping force led the rescue effort, backed by the United States Coast Guard. Divers recovered the bodies of those trapped in a heavily overloaded Haitian ferry which sunk in 120 feet of water 50 yards from shore.
Haiti's President visited the disaster scene at Montrouis, but was confronted by angry villagers demanding to know why the government had not taken steps to prevent such accidents.
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"Afghanistan Civil War (1997)",280,0,0,0
On September 12, the United Nations called for a truce as fighting raged in Afghanistan\B.\b Opposition forces fired at least five rockets at the capital Kabul, which was held by the Taliban militia, while the northern opposition stronghold of Mazar-e-Sharif came under siege for a third day.
Fighting entered a fourth day around the besieged northern opposition stronghold of Mazar-e-Sharif, as \JAfghanistan\j's Taliban militia continued its offensive to take control of the city. Taliban warplanes pounded Mazar-e-Sharif with bombs, while a large-scale counter-attack mounted by opposition forces on Taliban positions outside the city was reportedly beaten back.
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"Scottish Independence (1997)",281,0,0,0
On September 12, the people of Scotland voted in a referendum to return parliament to Edinburgh for the first time in nearly three centuries. Scots were asked two questions: whether they wanted their own parliament, and whether they want it to have limited power to set taxes. The "yes" campaign was endorsed by British Prime Minister, Tony Blair.
This followed the return on 1 December 1996 of the Stone of Scone, a symbol of Scottish nationhood and sovereignty, to Edinburgh Castle -- the stone was taken from Scotland in 1296 by King Edward I to punish his enemies. The British Labour Government held the referendum to let Scotland vote on the Government's proposals to establish a Scottish parliament. Results showed that 74.3 percent of voters were in favor of a Scottish parliament, and that 63.5 percent want the parliament to have tax-varying powers.
Although it was a victory for Scottish home-rule campaigners, and for British Prime Minister, Tony Blair, who spearheaded the final days of the campaign, the legislation required to transfer Westminster's powers over Scotland to a regional body still has to be passed by the British Parliament.
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"Chinese Congress Meets (1997)",282,0,0,0
On September 13 in a 2 1/2 hour speech, Chinese\B \bPresident, Jiang Zemin, opened the ruling Communist Party's 15th Congress, outlining sweeping reforms which include opening big state-owned companies to public shareholding, and relaxing controls over smaller companies to allow sales and mergers.
On September 18 In \JBeijing\j, delegates to the 15th Communist Party Congress elected a new 193-member Central Committee, dropping the National People's Congress chairman, 72-year-old Qiao Shi, who was regarded as one of the main rivals to President Jiang Zemin. Also dropped as a result of the election were the senior Vice-Chairman of the Central Military Commission, General Liu Huaqing, and another former influential military leader, General Yang Baibing.
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"Welsh Independence (1997)",283,0,0,0
On September 19 the people of Wales went to the polls to vote in a referendum on British Government proposals to establish a Welsh home-rule parliament in \JCardiff\j for the first time in 600 years. Unlike the parliament proposed for Scotland, however, the Welsh assembly would not have the power to make laws or raise taxes.
Nevertheless Wales also voted to have separate parliamentary assembly - the first for 600 years . The referendum result was based on a voter turn-out of just over 50 percent with a margin of just 7000 in favor of independence. A total of 559,419 or 50.3 per cent voted for independence, while 552, 698 or 49.7 voted against independence. Only a huge vote in the Welsh heartland of Carmarthenshire of 49,115 against 26,119 turned the tide.
"We were elected to modernize the constitution", Britain's Labour prime minister Tony Blair said afterwards "and we have taken two large steps along that road already now with Scotland and Wales voting for independence". Welsh voters only narrowly endorsed this British Government proposal for a separate parliament in Cardiff, unlike the enthusiastic three-to-one vote for devolution in Scotland last week, confirming only 50.3 percent of Welsh people or only one in four of the 2.2 million voters voted in favor of the change.
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"Brightest Star Discovered (1997)",284,0,0,0
On 8 October United States scientists discovered the brightest star in the universe naming it Pistol after the pistol shaped nebula of gas clouds that surround it. The new star, which scientists claimed was the biggest star that ever existed in the universe, is ten million times brighter than the sun.
The scientists from University of California said Pistol was a "celestial mammoth" born between one and three million years ago and has a radius of between 149.5 million and 224.5 million kilometers compared to the sun's radius of 692,000 kilometers. If placed at the center of our solar system Pistol would easily engulf our sun as well as the orbits of Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.
Although first noticed in the early nineteen nineties by Japanese and South African astronomers, the significance of the Pistol star was not appreciated till 8 October. Although Pistol is much larger than the sun it is burning as much energy in six seconds as the sun does in a year and will burn itself out well before the sun which will last another 5 billion years.
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"Briton Sets New Land Speed Record (1997)",285,0,0,0
On 13 October British fighter pilot Andy Green became the first person to break the sound barrier on land, setting a new world land speed record when he drove his four-wheeled, jet-propelled vehicle over 1.6 kilometers at 1,229.5 kilometers per hour. Although many people considered it impossible, Green created a distinct sonic boom when he broke the barrier 50 years after Chuck Yaeger had achieved the same feat in the air on 14 October 1947 over California.
Green drove his British-built Thrust SSC vehicle through the Black Rock Desert in Nevada over a 21 kilometer course proving that a land vehicle correctly designed could withstand the buffeting of a trans-sonic shockwave. The speed of sound varies with different temperatures and at 12.8║C during the attempt it was 1220km/h. Sixty one minutes after the supersonic feat, Green had repeated the run at 1223 km/h to produce an average speed of 1226 km/h. Although it was the first ever timed supersonic land drive in history, Green failed to set a new supersonic land speed record as international rules demand the feat be repeated in one hour and Green took an extra sixty seconds. However, two days later, Green officially set the record when he completed two runs through Nevada's Black Rock Desert in under one hour.
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"Climate Change Warning (1997)",286,0,0,0
On 18 October an environmental report was published as a background for the December 1997 Kyoto Climate Change Conference which revealed the changing climate would undermine traditional global economic production and trading. The report by the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change provided a region by region analysis of climate change impact. It forecast that the worst affected areas would be Africa and Asia, which would suffer from exponential famine and disease.
The report predicted a sea level rise of one meter will undermine the economy of conference host nation Japan, which will lose 80 per cent of its beaches and coastline where much of the industrial production is based. The report also argues that the European Union's 15 per cent target for reducing Greenhouse gases is necessary because the mean global surface temperature will increase by between one degree and 3.5 degrees Centigrade by 2100. The global mean sea level will rise by between 15 and 95 centimeters by 2100. The average rate of warming would be greater than any seen in the last 10,000 years.
The report, which argues that nations should now spend at least 3 per cent of their global economy's Gross Domestic Product to forestall and counteract these environmental changes, was scheduled to be discussed as a center-piece at the Kyoto Conference in December 1997.
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"Stock Market Crash (1997)",287,0,0,0
On 27 October world economies suffered a dramatic drop in share prices as a flow on from the biggest one-day price fall of the Dow Jones industrial average on the New York stock exchange. The Dow plunged more than 550 points, 350 of which were in the late afternoon forcing the imposition of trading curbs and halting the market.
It was the worst drop in share prices since the infamous "Black Monday" in 1987 but not as bad in percentage terms as either Black Monday or the 1929 Wall Street Crash which precipitated the Great Depression. The crash started in Asia where the stock exchange in Hong Kong (recently returned to communist China) and other stock markets began falling in the last week in October.
It was the first time in market history, however, that organizers imposed the curbs which had been introduced after the Black Monday 1987 crash. It was also the first time market trading had been halted since the 22 November 1963 assassination of President John F. Kennedy. US President Bill Clinton set up a monitoring unit from the White House where spokesman Mike McCurry said the President was taking a keen interest in developments.
Trading had been extremely heavy with more than 600 million shares changing hands and declining stocks led advancing shares by 15 to one. Investors dumped stocks across the board, with the hardest hit being in technology, financial stocks and drug companies.
